Development of Spatial Orientation in Two-to-Three-Year-Old Children in Relation to Lifestyle Factors.

Various lifestyle factors, including diet, physical activity, and sleep, have been studied in the context of children's health. However, how these lifestyle factors contribute to the development of cognitive abilities, including spatial cognition, remains vastly understudied. One landmark in spatial cognitive development occurs between 2.5 and 3 years of age. For spatial orientation at that age, children learn to use allocentric reference frames (using spatial relations between objects as the primary reference frame) in addition to, the already acquired, egocentric reference frames (using one's own body as the primary reference frame). In the current virtual reality study in a sample of 30-36-month-old toddlers (N = 57), we first demonstrated a marginally significant developmental shift in spatial orientation. Specifically, task performance with allocentric performance increased relative to egocentric performance (ηp2 = 0.06). Next, we explored a variety of lifestyle factors, including diet, in relation to task performance, to explain individual differences. Screen time and gestational weight gain of the mother were negatively associated with spatial task performance. The findings presented here can be used to guide future confirmatory studies about the role of lifestyle factors in the development of spatial cognition.

Sex Differences and the Role of Gaming Experience in Spatial Cognition Performance in Primary School Children: An Exploratory Study.

Sex differences are repeatedly observed in spatial cognition tasks. However, the role of environmental factors such as gaming experience remains unclear. In this exploratory study, navigation and object-relocation were combined in a naturalistic virtual reality-based spatial task. The sample consisted of n = 53 Dutch children aged 9-11 years. Overall, girls (n = 24) and boys (n = 29) performed equally accurately, although there was an increase in accuracy with age for boys (ηp2 = 0.09). Boys navigated faster than girls (ηp2 = 0.29), and this difference increased with age (ηp2 = 0.07). More gaming experience in boys versus girls (Cohen's d = 0.88) did not explain any result observed. We encourage future confirmatory studies to use the paradigm presented here to investigate the current results in a larger sample. These findings could be beneficial for optimizing spatial cognition training interventions.