Preliminary investigation of the use of Raman spectroscopy to predict meat and eating quality traits of beef loins.

A preliminary investigation was conducted to determine the potential for a handheld Raman spectroscopic device to predict sensory traits determined by an untrained consumer panel. Measurement of 45 beef loins (M. longissimus lumborum) was conducted using a 671nm handheld Raman spectroscopic device. Samples were then held frozen until testing by an untrained sensory panel. Sections were also excised to determine shear force values and other indicators of meat quality. Derived models suggest that the Raman spectroscopic device can predict juiciness and tenderness, with correlations between predicted and observed values (ρ) of 0.42 and 0.47, respectively. Spectra indicated that these predictions were characterised by the fatty acid concentration, the hydrophobicity of proteins and the orientation of collagen. However, future research is required to determine the repeatability and robustness of these models on a larger independent data set.

The effect of lamb carcase weight and GR depth on the production of value-added cuts - A short communication.

Times for the progressive breakdown of 95 lamb carcases were recorded to determine the impact of carcase weight and GR tissue depth on the time and therefore cost to produce value added retail cuts. Further analysis also assessed the potential to use these carcase traits as predictors of fabrication times. Regression modeling demonstrated there was a limited ability to predict the difference in time to fabricate mid value-added (R2=0.18) and extreme value-added (R2=0.12) cuts compared to traditional cuts, suggesting that other factors need to be considered. However, this study highlighted the significant increases in time required to fabricate more value-added cuts and to breakdown heavier carcases. Furthermore, this study demonstrated the changes to the saleable meat yield as the degree of fabrication increased, such that the average product prices increased ($20.64/kg for mid value added and $28.72/kg for extreme value added) compared to traditional retail cuts ($15/kg) to offset the increased labour of fabricating value-added cuts.

The effect of forage-types on the fatty acid profile, lipid and protein oxidation, and retail colour stability of muscles from White Dorper lambs.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of different forage-types on lamb meat quality parameters. White Dorper lambs that had grazed five forage-types, were slaughtered commercially. At 24h post-mortem, the m. longissimus lumborum (LL) was removed from one side, sliced into three equal sub-samples, vacuum packaged and assigned to ageing periods (5, 12 or 40days); the other side of LL was aged for 5days. The m. adductor femoris was used for fatty acid analysis. Lambs fed chicory+arrowleaf clover had the highest concentration of health claimable omega-3 fatty acids and the lowest omega-6:omega-3 fatty acid ratio. Forage-types with higher vitamin E content showed lower lipid oxidation levels independent of ageing period. Forage-type and ageing period did not influence the redness, yellowness, chroma or reflectance ratio (630nm÷580nm) of displayed meat. Chicory+arrowleaf clover gave the best results to improve the fatty acid content of lamb meat.

A GR/Impedance probe proves unsuitable for measuring GR depth in Australian lamb carcases.

Multiple studies were conducted at 3 abattoirs to determine the potential of a dual function GR/Impedance probe to measure GR soft- tissue depth (depth at the 12th rib, 110mm from the mid line of the carcase) of typical lamb carcases processed in Australia. Lamb carcases (1016) were measured approximately 25min post slaughter with the probe and a GR knife as the most commonly used measurement. Modelling indicated that variation in the measurement using the probe compared to the measurement using the knife occurred with increasing carcase weight and fatness as well as between different abattoirs. Consequently, the probe in its current design cannot provide the repeatable measurement required by industry.

Using instrumental (CIE and reflectance) measures to predict consumers' acceptance of beef colour.

We aimed to establish colorimetric thresholds based upon the capacity for instrumental measures to predict consumer satisfaction with beef colour. A web-based survey was used to distribute standardised photographs of beef M. longissimus lumborum with known colorimetrics (L*, a*, b*, hue, chroma, ratio of reflectance at 630nm and 580nm, and estimated deoxymyoglobin, oxymyoglobin and metmyoglobin concentrations) for scrutiny. Consumer demographics and perceived importance of colour to beef value were also evaluated. It was found that a* provided the most simple and robust prediction of beef colour acceptability. Beef colour was considered acceptable (with 95% acceptance) when a* values were equal to or above 14.5. Demographic effects on this threshold were negligible, but consumer nationality and gender did contribute to variation in the relative importance of colour to beef value. These results provide future beef colour studies with context to interpret objective colour measures in terms of consumer acceptance and market appeal.

The relationship between shear force, compression, collagen characteristics, desmin degradation and sarcomere length in lamb biceps femoris.

This study aimed to identity the relationships between known variants of tenderness (collagen content (total and soluble), desmin degradation and sarcomere length) and shear force and compression in the biceps femoris aged for 14days from 112 mixed sex lambs. Desmin degradation was related to compression (P<0.05) such that as desmin degradation increased compression decreased. Sarcomere length (SL) was related to shear force (P<0.05), such that as SL increased shear force declined. Shear force was also related to compression (P<0.05), and soluble collagen (P<0.05), with male lambs producing higher shear force values than females (4.4±1.72N: P<0.05) when adjusted for compression, sarcomere length and soluble collagen. The findings from this experiment indicate that the known variants (soluble collagen, sarcomere length and desmin degradation) are related to shear force and compression in ovine biceps femoris.

Contact rates of wild-living and domestic dog populations in Australia: a new approach.

Dogs (Canis familiaris) can transmit pathogens to other domestic animals, humans and wildlife. Both domestic and wild-living dogs are ubiquitous within mainland Australian landscapes, but their interactions are mostly unquantified. Consequently, the probability of pathogen transfer among wild-living and domestic dogs is unknown. To address this knowledge deficit, we established 65 camera trap stations, deployed for 26,151 camera trap nights, to quantify domestic and wild-living dog activity during 2 years across eight sites in north-east New South Wales, Australia. Wild-living dogs were detected on camera traps at all sites, and domestic dogs recorded at all but one. No contacts between domestic and wild-living dogs were recorded, and limited temporal overlap in activity was observed (32 %); domestic dogs were predominantly active during the day and wild-living dogs mainly during the night. Contact rates between wild-living and between domestic dogs, respectively, varied between sites and over time (range 0.003-0.56 contacts per camera trap night). Contact among wild-living dogs occurred mainly within social groupings, and peaked when young were present. However, pup emergence occurred throughout the year within and between sites and consequently, no overall annual cycle in contact rates could be established. Due to infrequent interactions between domestic and wild-living dogs, there are likely limited opportunities for pathogen transmission that require direct contact. In contrast, extensive spatial overlap of wild and domestic dogs could facilitate the spread of pathogens that do not require direct contact, some of which may be important zoonoses.

Relationship between colorimetric (instrumental) evaluation and consumer-defined beef colour acceptability.

The relationship between instrumental colorimetric values (L*, a*, b*, the ratio of reflectance at 630nm and 580nm) and consumer perception of acceptable beef colour was evaluated using a web-based survey and standardised photographs of beef m. longissimus lumborum with known colorimetrics. Only L* and b* were found to relate to average consumer opinions of beef colour acceptability. Respondent nationality was also identified as a source of variation in beef colour acceptability score. Although this is a preliminary study with the findings necessitating additional investigation, these results suggest L* and b* as candidates for developing instrumental thresholds for consumer beef colour expectations.

The effect of forage type on lamb carcass traits, meat quality and sensory traits.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of different forage-types on lamb carcass, meat quality and sensory attributes. Sixty-two, White Dorper lambs finished on bladder clover, brassica, chicory+arrowleaf clover, lucerne+phalaris or lucerne, were slaughtered at a commercial abattoir. At 24h post-mortem, the m. longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LL) was removed from the left side and sliced into three equal sub-samples, vacuum packaged and randomly assigned to ageing periods (5, 12 or 40days) and the right side was aged for 5days. The m. semimembranosus and m. adductor femoris were removed and, the former was then aged for 40days. Lambs fed chicory+arrowleaf clover or lucerne had a higher dressing percentage and fat depth. Bladder clover gave the highest level of glycogen in the LL. No sensory or other meat quality trait differences were found between the treatments. In general, no treatments showed any unfavourable effect on the traits examined.

Effect of repeated pulsed electric field treatment on the quality of hot-boned beef loins and topsides.

The effects of repeated (1×, 2×, 3×) pulsed electric field (PEF) treatment (10 kV, 90 Hz, 20 µs) on the quality of beef loins and topsides were evaluated, including the tenderness, purge loss, cooking loss, myofibrillar protein profile and post-mortem proteolysis. Both muscle types were obtained from each of 12 steers and were processed within 6h. After PEF treatment samples of both muscle types were subjected to 3, 7, 14 and 21 days ageing. The 1× and 2× PEF treatments had no effect on the tenderisation of hot-boned beef Musculus longissimus lumborum muscle for all ageing treatment times, while the 3× treatment reduced the tenderness. The opposite effect was observed in hot-boned beef Musculus semimembranosus muscles where the 3× treatment produced meat with lowest shear force at 3 days post-treatment time, but this beneficial effect disappeared with longer ageing times. An increase in proteolysis of troponin T was seen to the largest extent with 1× PEF treatment and decreased with every extra application of treatment.

Predicting meat quality traits of ovine m. semimembranosus, both fresh and following freezing and thawing, using a hand held Raman spectroscopic device.

Complementary studies were conducted to determine the potential for a Raman spectroscopic hand held device to predict meat quality traits of fresh lamb m. semimembranosus (topside) after ageing and freezing/thawing. Spectra were collected from 80 fresh muscles at 24h and 5d PM, another 80 muscles were measured at 24h, 5d and following freezing/thawing. Shear force, cooking loss, sarcomere length, colour, particle size, collagen content, pH24, pHu, purge and thaw loss were also measured. Results indicated a potential to predict pHu (R(2)cv=0.59), pH24 (R(2)cv=0.48) and purge (R(2)cv=0.42) using spectra collected 24h PM. L* could be predicted using spectra collected 24h (R(2)cv=0.33) or 5d PM (R(2)cv=0.33). This suggests that Raman spectroscopy is suited to identifying carcases which deviate from the normal metabolic processes and related meat quality traits.

Effect of pulsed electric field treatment on hot-boned muscles of different potential tenderness.

In this study, the effect of pulsed electric field (PEF) treatment and ageing on the quality of beef M. longissimus lumborum (LL) and M. semimembranosus (SM) muscles was evaluated, including the tenderness, water loss and post-mortem proteolysis. Muscles were obtained from 12 steers (6 steers for each muscle), removed from the carcasses 4 hour postmortem and were treated with pulsed electric field within 2h. Six different pulsed electric field intensities (voltages of 5 and 10 kV × frequencies of 20, 50 and 90 Hz) plus a control were applied to each muscle to determine the optimum treatment conditions. Beef LL was found to get tougher with increasing treatment frequency whereas beef SM muscle was found to have up to 21.6% reduction in the shear force with pulsed electric field treatment. Post-mortem proteolysis showed an increase in both troponin and desmin degradation in beef LL treated with low intensity PEF treatment (20 Hz) compared to non-treated control samples.

Modelling lamb carcase pH and temperature decline parameters: relationship to shear force and abattoir variation.

Carcase pH and temperature decline rates influence lamb tenderness; therefore pH decline parameters are beneficial when modelling tenderness. These include pH at temperature 18 °C (pH@Temp18), temperature when pH is 6 (Temp@pH6), and pH at 24 h post-mortem (pH24). This study aimed to establish a relationship between shear force (SF) as a proxy for tenderness and carcase pH decline parameters estimated using both linear and spline estimation models for the m. longissimus lumborum (LL). The study also compared abattoirs regarding their achievement of ideal pH decline, indicative of optimal tenderness. Based on SF measurements of LL and m. semimembranosus collected as part of the Information Nucleus slaughter programme (CRC for Sheep Industry Innovation) this study found significant relationships between tenderness and pH24LL, consistent across the meat cuts and ageing periods examined. Achievement of ideal pH decline was shown not to have significantly differed across abattoirs, although rates of pH decline varied significantly across years within abattoirs.

Lambmeat colour values (HunterLab CIE and reflectance) are influenced by aperture size (5 mm v. 25 mm).

The effect of aperture size on the assessment of lamb meat colour values (L*, a*, b* and R630/580)was investigated. Two experiments using 2 HunterLab MiniScan colorimeters (large [25 mm] and small [5 mm] apertures) were conducted: 1) coloured tiles were measured and 2) unaged lamb (n = 65) m. longissimus lumborum (LL) and m. semimembranosus (SM) muscles were measured over 2.5 d under simulated retail display. For Experiment three, 2 different colorimeters were used on lamb (n = 36) LL aged for 6 weeks before measurement over 4 don simulated retail display. Coloured tile a* and b* values were unaffected by aperture size, but L* values and the R630/580 ratio were influenced by aperture size. The effect of aperture size on lamb meat colour measurements varied with display time and muscle type. The large aperture size generally provided the highest colorimetric values, and is recommended for measuring lamb meat colour.

Effect of pulsed electric field on the proteolysis of cold boned beef M. Longissimus lumborum and M. Semimembranosus.

The effects of pulsed electric field (PEF) and ageing (3, 7, 14 and 21 days) on the shear force, protein profile, and post-mortem proteolysis of beef loins (M. Longissimus lumborum, LL) and topsides (M. Semimembranosus, SM) were investigated using a range of pulsed electric field treatments [voltages (5 and 10 kV) and frequencies (20, 50, and 90 Hz)]. PEF treatment decreased the shear force of beef LL and SM muscles by up to 19%. The reduction in the shear force in the LL was not affected by the treatment intensity whereas the reduction in the SM was dependent on PEF frequency. PEF treated beef loins showed increased proteolysis, both early post-mortem and during subsequent post-mortem storage reflected by increased degradation of troponin-T and desmin. The most prominent troponin-T degradation was found in samples treated with 5 kV-90 Hz, 10 kV-20 Hz at day 3 and day 7 post-treatment in addition to 10 kV-50 Hz in subsequent post-treatment times. The degradation of desmin in PEF treated beef loins increased with ageing time.

Raman spectroscopy compared against traditional predictors of shear force in lamb m. longissimus lumborum.

A Raman spectroscopic hand held device was used to predict shear force (SF) of 80 fresh lamb m. longissimus lumborum (LL) at 1 and 5days post mortem (PM). Traditional predictors of SF including sarcomere length (SL), particle size (PS), cooking loss (CL), percentage myofibrillar breaks and pH were also measured. SF values were regressed against Raman spectra using partial least squares regression and against the traditional predictors using linear regression. The best prediction of shear force values used spectra at 1day PM to predict shear force at 1day which gave a root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) of 13.6 (Null=14.0) and the R(2) between observed and cross validated predicted values was 0.06 (R(2)cv). Overall, for fresh LL, the predictability SF, by either the Raman hand held probe or traditional predictors was low.

Predicting tenderness of fresh ovine semimembranosus using Raman spectroscopy.

A hand held Raman probe was used to predict shear force (SF) of fresh lamb m. semimembranosus (topside). Eighty muscles were measured at 1 day PM and after a further 4 days ageing (5 days PM). At 1 day PM sarcomere length (SL) and particle size (PS) were measured and at 5 days PM, SF, PS, cooking loss (CL) and pH were also measured. SF values were regressed against Raman spectra using partial least squares regression and against traditional predictors (e.g. SL) using linear regression. The best prediction of SF used spectra at 1 day PM which gave a root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) of 11.5 N (Null = 13.2) and the squared correlation between observed and cross validated predicted values (R(2)cv) was 0.27. Prediction of SF based on the traditional predictors had smaller R(2) values than using Raman spectra justifying further study on Raman spectroscopy.

Human-resource subsidies alter the dietary preferences of a mammalian top predator.

Resource subsidies to opportunistic predators may alter natural predator-prey relationships and, in turn, have implications for how these predators affect co-occurring prey. To explore this idea, we compared the prey available to and eaten by a top canid predator, the Australian dingo (Canis lupus dingo), in areas with and without human-provided food. Overall, small mammals formed the majority of dingo prey, followed by reptiles and then invertebrates. Where human-provided food resources were available, dingoes ate them; 17% of their diet comprised kitchen waste from a refuse facility. There was evidence of dietary preference for small mammals in areas where human-provided food was available. In more distant areas, by contrast, reptiles were the primary prey. The level of seasonal switching between small mammals and reptiles was also more pronounced in areas away from human-provided food. This reaffirmed concepts of prey switching but within a short, seasonal time frame. It also confirmed that the diet of dingoes is altered where human-provided food is available. We suggest that the availability of anthropogenic food to this species and other apex predators therefore has the potential to alter trophic cascades.

SmartShape™ technology. Modifying the shape of the beef cuberoll and the consumer response to shaped scotch fillet steaks.

SmartShape™ is a novel meat processing technology that uses air pressure to compress and elongate whole cold-boned primals and packages them to retain form. A two stage study was conducted. The first stage established the ability of the SmartShape™ treated beef cube roll (m. longissimus lumborum) to retain shape in a commercial setting. Twelve hours chilling time following treatment was found to be adequate for steaks to retain their shape for up to 24h after slicing. Steak shape and size did not change substantially until after cooking, when the steaks looked less formed. In the second stage a survey was conducted of 421 consumers to clarify the response to the shaping of a subset of raw and cooked scotch fillet steaks. There was no difference in preference for shaped or control steaks. A secondary survey found that informed consumers were more amenable to the SmartShape™ scotch fillet steaks presented here, but would not pay a premium for them.

Post-mortem modelling of pH and temperature in related lamb carcases.

Exponential decay models have been used to model pH and temperature decline in lamb carcases post mortem. Such models, once fitted to carcase data, can then be used to predict a carcase's pH at a temperature of 18°C and its temperature when the pH equals 6. Unfortunately, these models frequently fail when fitted to limited pH/temperature data, because of either insufficient data or inappropriateness of the exponential decay model. To overcome these problems an alternative though similar modelling approach is proposed. This alternative approach replaces the exponential decay model with a more flexible spline modelling approach for the average trend and includes in the model, as random effects, individual deviations from average trend. Including the individual deviations from average trend as random effects in the model allows information on individual carcases to be shared across carcases.