Pyruvate kinase M2 regulates Hif-1α activity and IL-1ß induction and is a critical determinant of the warburg effect in LPS-activated macrophages.

Macrophages activated by the TLR4 agonist LPS undergo dramatic changes in their metabolic activity. We here show that LPS induces expression of the key metabolic regulator Pyruvate Kinase M2 (PKM2). Activation of PKM2 using two well-characterized small molecules, DASA-58 and TEPP-46, inhibited LPS-induced Hif-1α and IL-1ß, as well as the expression of a range of other Hif-1α-dependent genes. Activation of PKM2 attenuated an LPS-induced proinflammatory M1 macrophage phenotype while promoting traits typical of an M2 macrophage. We show that LPS-induced PKM2 enters into a complex with Hif-1α, which can directly bind to the IL-1ß promoter, an event that is inhibited by activation of PKM2. Both compounds inhibited LPS-induced glycolytic reprogramming and succinate production. Finally, activation of PKM2 by TEPP-46 in vivo inhibited LPS and Salmonella typhimurium-induced IL-1ß production, while boosting production of IL-10. PKM2 is therefore a critical determinant of macrophage activation by LPS, promoting the inflammatory response.

LPS induces the degradation of programmed cell death protein 4 (PDCD4) to release Twist2, activating c-Maf transcription to promote interleukin-10 production.

Programmed cell death protein 4 (PDCD4) is a tumor suppressor and has also been shown to suppress production of the immunomodulatory cytokine IL-10. The precise role of PDCD4 in IL-10 induction in macrophages is still not fully understood. Incubation of macrophages with inhibitors of PI3K and mTOR blocked LPS-stimulated PDCD4 degradation and expression of c-Maf and IL-10 production. PDCD4 and the transcription factor Twist2 were shown to form a complex in untreated cells. LPS disrupted the complex allowing Twist2 to bind to the c-Maf promoter. PI3K and mTOR inhibitors prevented this disruption by stabilizing PDCD4 and thereby decreased Twist2 binding to the c-Maf promoter and induction of c-Maf mRNA. These results indicate a regulatory role for PDCD4 and Twist2 in LPS-induced IL-10 production in macrophages. LPS promotes PDCD4 degradation via a pathway involving PI3K and mTOR, releasing Twist2, which induces IL-10 via c-Maf.

miR-132/212 knockout mice reveal roles for these miRNAs in regulating cortical synaptic transmission and plasticity.

miR-132 and miR-212 are two closely related miRNAs encoded in the same intron of a small non-coding gene, which have been suggested to play roles in both immune and neuronal function. We describe here the generation and initial characterisation of a miR-132/212 double knockout mouse. These mice were viable and fertile with no overt adverse phenotype. Analysis of innate immune responses, including TLR-induced cytokine production and IFNß induction in response to viral infection of primary fibroblasts did not reveal any phenotype in the knockouts. In contrast, the loss of miR-132 and miR-212, while not overtly affecting neuronal morphology, did affect synaptic function. In both hippocampal and neocortical slices miR-132/212 knockout reduced basal synaptic transmission, without affecting paired-pulse facilitation. Hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP) induced by tetanic stimulation was not affected by miR-132/212 deletion, whilst theta burst LTP was enhanced. In contrast, neocortical theta burst-induced LTP was inhibited by loss of miR-132/212. Together these results indicate that miR-132 and/or miR-212 play a significant role in synaptic function, possibly by regulating the number of postsynaptic AMPA receptors under basal conditions and during activity-dependent synaptic plasticity.

Dectin-1 regulates IL-10 production via a MSK1/2 and CREB dependent pathway and promotes the induction of regulatory macrophage markers.

In response to infection by fungal pathogens, the innate immune system recognises specific fungal pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) via pattern recognition receptors including the C-type lectin dectin-1 and members of the Toll Like Receptor (TLR) family. Stimulation of these receptors leads to the induction of both pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. The protein kinases MSK1 and 2 are known to be important in limiting inflammatory cytokine production by macrophages in response to the TLR4 agonist LPS. In this study we show that MSKs are also activated in macrophages by the fungal derived ligand zymosan, as well as the dectin-1 specific agonists curdlan and depleted zymosan, via the ERK1/2 and p38α MAPK pathways. Furthermore, we show that MSKs regulate dectin-1 induced IL-10 production, and that this regulation is dependent on the ability of MSKs to phosphorylate the transcription factor CREB. IL-10 secreted in response to zymosan was able to promote STAT3 phosphorylation via an autocrine feedback loop. Consistent with the decreased IL-10 secretion in MSK1/2 knockout macrophages, these cells also had decreased STAT3 tyrosine phosphorylation relative to wild type controls after stimulation with zymosan. We further show that the reduction in IL-10 production in the MSK1/2 macrophages results in increased secretion of IL-12p40 in response to zymosan relative to wild type controls. The production of high levels of IL-10 but low levels of IL-12 has previously been associated with an M2b or 'regulatory' macrophage phenotype, which was initially described in macrophages stimulated with a combination of immune complexes and LPS. We found that zymosan, via dectin-1 activation, also leads to the expression of SphK1 and LIGHT, markers of a regulatory like phenotype in mouse macrophages. The expression of these makers was further reinforced by the high level of IL-10 secreted in response to zymosan stimulation.

MSK1 and MSK2 inhibit lipopolysaccharide-induced prostaglandin production via an interleukin-10 feedback loop.

Prostaglandin production is catalyzed by cyclooxygenase 2 (cox-2). We demonstrate here that MSK1 and MSK2 (MSK1/2) can exert control on the induction of cox-2 mRNA by Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists. In the initial phase of cox-2 induction, MSK1/2 knockout macrophages confirmed a role for MSK in the positive regulation of transcription. However, at later time points both lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced prostaglandin and cox-2 protein levels were increased in MSK1/2 knockout. Further analysis found that while MSKs promoted cox-2 mRNA transcription, following longer LPS stimulation MSKs also promoted degradation of cox-2 mRNA. This was found to be the result of an interleukin 10 (IL-10) feedback mechanism, with endogenously produced IL-10 promoting cox-2 degradation. The ability of IL-10 to do this was dependent on the mRNA binding protein TTP through a p38/MK2-mediated mechanism. As MSKs regulate IL-10 production in response to LPS, MSK1/2 knockout results in reduced IL-10 secretion and therefore reduced feedback from IL-10 on cox-2 mRNA stability. Following LPS stimulation, this increased mRNA stability correlated to an elevated induction of both of cox-2 protein and prostaglandin secretion in MSK1/2 knockout macrophages relative to that in wild-type cells. This was not restricted to isolated macrophages, as a similar effect of MSK1/2 knockout was seen on plasma prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) levels following intraperitoneal injection of LPS.