Adolescents' food intake changes during the COVID-19 pandemic: The moderating role of pre-pandemic susceptibility, COVID-19 related stressors, and the social food context.

Although insight in how adolescents' food intake is affected by the COVID-19 pandemic is critical, knowledge is limited. Hence, this longitudinal study (N = 691, Mage = 14.30, SDage = 0.62; 52.5% female) investigated changes in adolescents' unhealthy (sugar-sweetened beverages, sweet snacks, savoury snacks) and healthy (fruit and vegetables) food intake (in total, obtained from home, and from outside the home) from pre-pandemic (Spring 2019) to the first lockdown (Spring 2020) and to six months later (Fall 2020). Moreover, several moderating factors were assessed. Results showed that the intake of unhealthy and healthy food in total and obtained from outside the home decreased during the lockdown. Six months later, unhealthy food intake returned to pre-pandemic levels, while healthy food intake remained lower. COVID-19 stressful life events and maternal food intake further qualified these longer-term changes in intake of sugar-sweetened beverages and fruit and vegetables, respectively. Future work is warranted to elucidate longer-term COVID-19 effects on adolescents' food intake.

The effect of a multi-component school-based social network intervention on children's body mass index: a four-arm intervention study.

Objective: Schools are considered an important setting for stimulating healthy weight. The current study is unique in examining effects of a multi-component school-based social network intervention on children's body mass index z-scores (zBMI).Methods: Four schools were randomly allocated to one of four conditions: a social network intervention using influence agents focusing on water consumption, physical activity, a combination of the two, or a passive control condition. Participants included a total of 201 6- to-11-year-old children (53.7% girls; Mage = 8.51, SDage = 0.93). At baseline, 149 (76.0%) participants had a healthy weight, 29 (14.8%) had overweight and 18 (9.2%) had obesity.Results: Linear mixed effect models indicated that a multi-component school-based social network intervention targeting both water consumption and physical activity was most effective in decreasing children's zBMI.Conclusion: This study suggests that schools can contribute to the intervention of childhood obesity-even without involving the parents-by targeting both children's water consumption and physical activity through influential peers, but more research is needed to identify mechanisms of change.

A longitudinal study on changes in food parenting practices during COVID-19 and the role of parental well-being.

The COVID-19 pandemic may negatively influence food parenting practices, also among parents of adolescents. Parental well-being (stress and depressive symptoms) may explain these COVID-19 related changes in food parenting practices (snack structure, healthy structure, modeling, autonomy support, and coercive control). However, most previous studies performed before or during the COVID-19 pandemic have been limited by cross-sectional designs. The aim of the current study among parents of adolescent children was twofold. First, we aimed to examine prospective differences in food parenting practices comparing the situation before and during COVID-19. Second, we aimed to examine both cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between parental well-being and the dimensions of food parenting, while additionally examining whether these prospective associations were more pronounced in parents who had experienced more COVID-19 stressful life events. Parents (N = 290; 74.9% female; at baseline: Mage = 46.9; SDage = 4.3) of adolescent children (at baseline: Mage = 14.3; SDage = 0.6) completed online surveys about parental well-being and food parenting twice: One year before the COVID-19 pandemic (spring 2019) and during the COVID-19 pandemic, 1.5 years after the first measurement (autumn 2020). In general, we found consistent evidence for an average decrease in food autonomy support and an increase in coercive control during COVID-19. However, parental well-being did not seem to explain (changes in) food parenting practices during COVID-19, also not in combination with stressful life events. Our findings suggest that, regardless of parental well-being, the general COVID-19 situation had some small negative influences on autonomy support and coercive control among parents of adolescents. These findings might be explained by parents being more often confronted with unhealthy eating occasions in the COVID-19 home context, triggering these negative parental responses.

Examining food intake similarities in adolescent best friend dyads using longitudinal Actor-Partner Interdependence Models.

Little is known about how adolescent best friends may affect each other's food intake. This study explored whether friendship selection and socialization mechanisms explained potential food intake similarities in adolescent reciprocated best friend dyads. We also tested whether socialization processes were moderated by dyad member's relative zBMI. Members of 145 same-gender best friendship dyads (56% female; Mage = 12.79; SDage = 0.61) reported on their intake of food obtained from home and from outside the home at the beginning and the end of the school year through food frequency questionnaires. Longitudinal Actor-Partner Interdependence Models results showed no indication of selection or socialization, and very limited evidence for the moderation of socialization processes by relative zBMI. These findings indicate that focusing on adolescent reciprocated best friends in dietary interventions may not be valuable.

[A cohort-comparison of food intake, lifestyle and social-emotional health of adolescents before and during the corona crisis]. / Een cohortvergelijking van eetgedrag, leefstijl en sociaal-emotionele gezondheid bij jongeren vóór en tijdens de coronacrisis.

The corona crisis can be considered a 'natural experiment', in which the social context has changed dramatically. It is largely unknown how adolescents respond to this, and which behaviors change. We have compared a cohort of ninth graders (N = 177, M age = 15.00) from secondary schools before the corona crisis (Spring 2019) with a demographically comparable group of ninth graders (N = 188, M age = 14.95) during the first lockdown (Spring 2020). We compared the domains food intake, lifestyle, and social-emotional health between both cohorts, and we examined the associations within and between the domains for both cohorts. Sweet snack intake from home, alcohol use, and loneliness were higher in the corona cohort compared to before the corona crisis (non-significant after correction). The intake of fruit from home, of sugar-sweetened beverages and unhealthy snacks from outside the home, and of moderate and vigorous physical activity occurred less frequently during the lockdown. Relationship satisfaction with parents, happiness, and stress from school were lower compared to before the lockdown. Smoking, stress at home, and relationship satisfaction with their best friend were equal in both cohorts. The pattern of associations within and between domains differed. More research is needed to delineate how resilient youth are on the long-term, and which youth need support to bounce back.

Adolescents' Food Purchasing Patterns in The School Food Environment: Examining the Role of Perceived Relationship Support and Maternal Monitoring.

The school food environment plays a role in adolescents' dietary behaviors. In this study, adolescents' food purchasing patterns in and around school and its potential relationship with perceived maternal relationship support and maternal monitoring were examined. Data were collected in The Netherlands in 2017. A total of 726 adolescents (45.8% boys; Mage = 13.78 ± 0.49) and 713 mothers (Mage = 45.05 ± 4.45) participated. Adolescents' frequency of bringing and purchasing foods was assessed via a Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ). Relationship support and monitoring were measured via self-report questionnaires. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was conducted to examine associations between adolescents' food purchasing patterns, relationship support, and monitoring. Results indicated that adolescents brought food and drinks mostly from home, and infrequently purchased these products in and around school. Yet, differences exist between subgroups of adolescents. Relationship support was positively associated with bringing fruit, vegetables and salad and negatively associated with purchasing sweet snacks. No associations were found for monitoring. These findings indicate that family-home determinants of healthy and unhealthy eating are important factors to consider when examining the impact of the school food environment on adolescents' food purchasing patterns. This has implications for policy makers who aim to develop and implement measures to improve adolescents' eating in and around school.

Is Adolescents' Food Intake Associated with Exposure to the Food Intake of Their Mothers and Best Friends?

Both mothers' and best friends' food intake are associated with adolescents' food intake, but they are rarely investigated simultaneously. In this study, we tested the associations of mothers' and best friends' food intake with adolescents' intake of unhealthy and healthy food, obtained from home and from outside the home, and the moderating role of adolescents' exposure to their food intake. Participants included 667 adolescents (53% female, Mage = 12.9) and 396 of their mothers. Within this adolescent sample, 378 best friend dyads were identified. All participants completed food frequency questionnaires. Mothers separately reported on their food intake in the presence and absence of their child, and adolescents indicated how often they ate and drank together with their best friend during school breaks. Mothers', but not best friends', food intake was positively related to adolescents' intake of unhealthy and healthy food obtained from home and healthy food obtained from outside the home. Exposure to mothers' healthy food intake magnified mother-child similarities in healthy food intake. Exposure to best friends' intake of unhealthy food moderated adolescent-friend similarities in unhealthy food intake. Future work should assess the mechanisms that underlie these similarities, and should investigate these associations over time and in later developmental periods.

Effects of a non-eating confederate on food intake do not persist for everyone over time when people are left alone: An exploratory study.

An extensive body of research has established that eating with others can have inhibitory effects on food intake. Recent findings suggest that these effects may (partly) persist over time when the eating norm is no longer enforced. To gain more insights into the persistence of effects of a live non-eating stranger, the main aim of the present study is to explore how food intake of young women changes as a result of previous exposure to a non-eating confederate (i.e., adult stranger). To address this aim, an experiment was conducted in which 64 young women, aged 17 to 26 (M = 19.81, SD = 1.95), were given access to chocolates at two different time points. First, participants were all paired with a non-eating stranger (i.e., confederate). Afterwards, half of the participants remained with the non-eating stranger (i.e., together-together condition), while the other half was left alone with the food (i.e., together-alone condition). Results indicated that participants who were left alone increased their intake on average, although raw data revealed interesting individual differences. In contrast, most of the participants who remained with the non-eating stranger did not increase intake. Participants in an ad hoc added control condition (i.e., no exposure to a non-eating confederate; alone-alone condition; n = 26) showed food intake similar to participants in the together-alone condition after they were left alone. Our findings suggest that if intake behaviors are too extreme and divergent from the desire to eat as much as possible, women may, on average, only adhere to these behaviors in the presence of others.

Causal associations between body mass index and mental health: a Mendelian randomisation study.

BACKGROUND: Body mass index (BMI) is correlated negatively with subjective well-being and positively with depressive symptoms. Whether these associations reflect causal effects is unclear. METHODS: We examined bidirectional, causal effects between BMI and mental health with Mendelian randomisation using summary-level data from published genome-wide association studies (BMI: n=339 224; subjective well-being: n=204 966; depressive symptoms: n=161 460). Genetic variants robustly related to the exposure variable acted as instrumental variable to estimate causal effects. We combined estimates of individual genetic variants with inverse-variance weighted meta-analysis, weighted median regression and MR-Egger regression. RESULTS: There was evidence for a causal, increasing effect of BMI on depressive symptoms and suggestive evidence for a decreasing effect of BMI on subjective well-being. We found no evidence for causality in the other direction. CONCLUSION: This study provides support for a higher BMI causing poorer mental health. Further research should corroborate these findings and explore mechanisms underlying this potential causality.

Feed the Alien! The Effects of a Nutrition Instruction Game on Children's Nutritional Knowledge and Food Intake.

OBJECTIVE: Serious games are a promising venue to increase children's nutritional knowledge in an entertaining format. The aim of this study was to test the short-term effectiveness of the Alien Health Game, a videogame designed to teach elementary school children about nutrition and healthy food choices. MATERIALS AND METHODS: To examine the effects of the Alien Health Game, an experimental design with a single between-subjects factor (experimental condition vs. active control condition) was used. A total of 108 Dutch children (10-13 years; 58 boys) were randomly assigned to either play Alien Health using the Kinect sensor for two consecutive days, for 1 hour of gameplay (experimental condition; n = 50), or a web-based nutrition game for the same period (active control condition; n = 58). Participants' nutritional knowledge was assessed at pretest, immediate, and at 2-week follow-up. Food intake was assessed at immediate and 2-week follow-up. RESULTS: Participants who played Alien Health had better knowledge of the five most important macronutrients of foods at immediate posttest, but not at follow-up. Participants were better able to distinguish the healthier food item out of two options over time, but this effect did not differ for those in the experimental versus the active control condition. No differences in food intake, neither in the consumption of nutrient-dense or energy-dense foods, were found between children playing both games. CONCLUSION: A brief game-based intervention like the Alien Health Game has the potential to improve children's nutritional knowledge in the short term, but may not be strong enough to increase nutritional knowledge and actual eating behavior in the long term. Further investigation is warranted before this game is applied in future nutrition education programs.

The longitudinal link between mothers' and adolescents' snacking: The moderating role of television viewing.

A large proportion of adolescents eats too many energy-dense snacks, which is detrimental for their current and future health. To understand how to promote healthy dietary behaviors in adolescents, we need to identify factors that affect their snacking. While previous cross-sectional work has shown mother-child similarities in eating behavior, longitudinal studies are lacking. Hence, the first aim of this study was to examine whether maternal snacking predicted changes in adolescents' snacking over time. A second aim was to examine whether adolescents' television viewing magnified the strength of this longitudinal association. Television viewing may increase the motivation to eat the snacks consumed by mothers later on, for example through food advertisement exposure and mindless eating. To address both aims, 2051 adolescents (Mage baseline = 13.81; 51.5% boys) were asked to report on their snacking and television viewing three times, with intervals of one year. Moreover, a subsample of mothers of adolescents (N = 1080) reported on their snacking at baseline as well. The results indicate that maternal snacking indeed predicts adolescents' snacking over time and that this effect is more pronounced among adolescents who watch a great amount of television. These findings attest to the importance of mothers in forming adolescents' snacking, not only concurrently but also prospectively. Additionally, this study highlights the relevance of assessing other home environmental factors that may influence maternal effects on their children's snacking.

The sex-specific interaction between food responsiveness and sleep duration explaining body mass index among children.

OBJECTIVE/BACKGROUND: The inverse relationship between sleep duration and body mass index (BMI) has been well established and appears to be stronger among boys than girls. However, less is known about the mechanisms responsible for this sex-specific link. The main aim of the current study was to examine the sex-specific interaction between food responsiveness and sleep duration in explaining BMI among children. This sex-specific moderation will give more insight into a possible underlying food intake mechanism. PATIENTS/METHODS: In total, 206 caregivers filled out questionnaires on child's sleep duration and food responsiveness (49.5% boys; mean age = 9.5 years; standard deviation = 1.4 years). Child's weight and height were measured, after which age- and sex-specific standardized BMI values (referred to as zBMI here) were calculated. Descriptive statistics and regression analysis were conducted. A potential significant three-way interaction was further examined using simple slopes analysis and slope difference tests. RESULTS: A significant inverse correlation was found between sleep duration and zBMI for boys, but not for girls. Moreover, a significant and robust three-way interaction between sex, food responsiveness and sleep duration explaining child's zBMI was found. Slope difference tests indicate that the sleep-BMI slopes only significantly differed between high-food-responsive boys and high-food-responsive girls and between high-food-responsive boys and low-food-responsive boys. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that increased food intake might be a mechanism explaining the inverse sleep-BMI link among boys.

Behavioral Correlates of Prioritizing Popularity in Adolescence.

Little is known about individual differences in adolescents' motivation to achieve and maintain popularity. This study examined the moderating effects of prioritizing popularity on the associations between popularity and adjustment outcomes in late adolescence. Participants were 314 Dutch eleventh-grade students (M age = 16.83 years; 52 % male) who completed measures of popularity, prioritizing popularity, and prosocial, antisocial, and risk behaviors. It was hypothesized that associations between popularity and adjustment outcomes are stronger for adolescents who prioritize popularity. The results indicate that the combination of being popular and valuing popularity was strongly related to antisocial and risk behaviors, but not to prosocial behaviors. Adolescents' social status motivations thus play an important role in the association of popularity with antisocial and risk behaviors in late adolescence.