Incidence of Parkinson disease in North America.

Parkinson disease (PD) is the second most common age-related neurodegenerative condition diagnosed in North America. We recently demonstrated, using multiple epidemiological data sources, that the prevalence of PD diagnoses was greater than previously reported and currently used for clinical, research, and policy decision-making. Prior PD incidence estimates have varied, for unclear reasons. There is a need for improved estimates of PD incidence, not only for care delivery planning and future policy but also for increasing our understanding of disease risk. The objective of this study was thus to investigate the incidence of Parkinson disease across five epidemiological cohorts in North America in a common year, 2012. The cohorts contained data on 6.7 million person-years of adults ages 45 and older, and 9.3 million person-years of adults ages 65 and older. Our estimates of age-sex-adjusted incidence of PD ranged from 108 to 212 per 100,000 among persons ages 65 and older, and from 47 to 77 per 100,00 among persons ages 45 and older. PD incidence increased with age and was higher among males. We also found persistent spatial clustering of incident PD diagnoses in the U.S. PD incidence estimates varied across our data sources, in part due to case ascertainment and diagnosis methods, but also possibly due to the influence of population factors (prevalence of genetic risk factors or protective markers) and geographic location (exposure to environmental toxins). Understanding the source of these variations will be important for health care policy, research, and care planning.

Prevalence of Parkinson's disease across North America.

Estimates of the prevalence of Parkinson's disease in North America have varied widely and many estimates are based on small numbers of cases and from small regional subpopulations. We sought to estimate the prevalence of Parkinson's disease in North America by combining data from a multi-study sampling strategy in diverse geographic regions and/or data sources. Five separate cohort studies in California (2), Minnesota (1), Hawaii USA (1), and Ontario, Canada (1) estimated the prevalence of PD from health-care records (3), active ascertainment through facilities, large group, and neurology practices (1), and longitudinal follow-up of a population cohort (1). US Medicare program data provided complementary estimates for the corresponding regions. Using our age- and sex-specific meta-estimates from California, Minnesota, and Ontario and the US population structure from 2010, we estimate the overall prevalence of PD among those aged ≥45 years to be 572 per 100,000 (95% confidence interval 537-614) that there were 680,000 individuals in the US aged ≥45 years with PD in 2010 and that that number will rise to approximately 930,000 in 2020 and 1,238,000 in 2030 based on the US Census Bureau population projections. Regional variations in prevalence were also observed in both the project results and the Medicare-based calculations with which they were compared. The estimates generated by the Hawaiian study were lower across age categories. These estimates can guide health-care planning but should be considered minimum estimates. Some heterogeneity exists that remains to be understood.

The Kaiser Permanente Northern California research program on genes, environment, and health (RPGEH) pregnancy cohort: study design, methodology and baseline characteristics.

BACKGROUND: Exposures during the prenatal period may have lasting effects on maternal and child health outcomes. To better understand the effects of the in utero environment on children's short- and long-term health, large representative pregnancy cohorts with comprehensive information on a broad range of environmental influences (including biological and behavioral) and the ability to link to prenatal, child and maternal health outcomes are needed. The Research Program on Genes, Environment and Health (RPGEH) pregnancy cohort at Kaiser Permanente Northern California (KPNC) was established to create a resource for conducting research to better understand factors influencing women's and children's health. Recruitment is integrated into routine clinical prenatal care at KPNC, an integrated health care delivery system. We detail the study design, data collection, and methodologies for establishing this cohort. We also describe the baseline characteristics and the cohort's representativeness of the underlying pregnant population in KPNC. METHODS: While recruitment is ongoing, as of October 2014, the RPGEH pregnancy cohort included 16,977 pregnancies (53 % from racial and ethnic minorities). RPGEH pregnancy cohort participants consented to have blood samples obtained in the first trimester (mean gestational age 9.1 weeks ± 4.2 SD) and second trimester (mean gestational age 18.1 weeks ± 5.5 SD) to be stored for future use. Women were invited to complete a questionnaire on health history and lifestyle. Information on women's clinical and health assessments before, during and after pregnancy and women and children's health outcomes are available in the health system's electronic health records, which also allows long-term follow-up. DISCUSSION: This large, racially- and ethnically-diverse cohort of pregnancies with prenatal biospecimens and clinical data is a valuable resource for future studies on in utero environmental exposures and maternal and child perinatal and long term health outcomes. The baseline characteristics of RPGEH Pregnancy Cohort demonstrate that it is highly representative of the underlying population living in the broader community in Northern California.

Association of DRD2 and DRD3 polymorphisms with Parkinson's disease in a multiethnic consortium.

OBJECTIVE: To examine genetic associations of polymorphisms in the dopamine receptor D2 (DRD2) and D3 (DRD3) genes with risk of Parkinson's disease (PD). METHODS: The study included 1325 newly diagnosed patients with PD and 1735 controls from a consortium of five North American case-control studies. We collected risk factor information by in-person or telephone interview. Six DRD2 and two DRD3 polymorphisms were genotyped using a common laboratory. Odds ratios were estimated using logistic regression. RESULTS: Among non-Hispanic whites, homozygous carriers of Taq1A DRD2 (rs1800497) polymorphism had an increased risk of PD compared to homozygous wildtype carriers (OR=1.5, 95% CI 1.0-2.3). In contrast, the direction of association for Taq1A polymorphism was opposite for African-Americans, showing an inverse association with PD risk (OR=0.10, 95% CI 0.2-0.7). Among white Hispanics who carried two alleles, the Ser9Gly DRD3 (rs6280) polymorphism was associated with a decreased risk of PD (OR=0.4, 95% CI 0.2-0.8). The inverse association of smoking with PD risk was not modified by any of the DRD2 or DRD3 polymorphisms. CONCLUSIONS: DRD2 polymorphisms are unlikely to be true disease-causing variants; however, three DRD2 polymorphisms (including Taq1A) may be in linkage disequilibrium with possible disease associated variants in the DRD2-ANKK1-NCAM1-TTC12 gene cluster.

Coffee, ADORA2A, and CYP1A2: the caffeine connection in Parkinson's disease.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: In 1-methyl-4-phenyl 1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine animal models of Parkinson's disease (PD), caffeine protects neurons by blocking the adenosine receptor A2A (ADORA2A). Caffeine is primarily metabolized by cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2). Our objective was to examine whether ADORA2A and CYP1A2 polymorphisms are associated with PD risk or modify the caffeine-PD association. METHODS: Parkinson's Epidemiology and Genetic Associations Studies in the United States (PEGASUS) included five population-based case-control studies. One laboratory genotyped four ADORA2A and three CYP1A2 polymorphisms in 1325 PD cases and 1735 age- and sex-matched controls. Information regarding caffeine (coffee) consumption and other lifestyle factors came from structured in-person or telephone interviews. Odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated using logistic regression. RESULTS: Two ADORA2A polymorphisms were inversely associated with PD risk - rs71651683, a 5' variant (adjusted allelic OR = 0.51, 95% CI 0.33-0.80, permutation-adjusted P = 0.015) and rs5996696, a promoter region variant (adjusted OR for AC and CC genotypes compared with the AA wild-type genotype were 0.76 (95% CI 0.57-1.02) and 0.37 (95% CI 0.13-1.01), respectively (permutation-adjusted P for trend = 0.04). CYP1A2 polymorphisms were not associated with PD risk; however, the coffee-PD association was strongest among subjects homozygous for either variant allele rs762551 (P(interaction) = 0.05) or rs2470890 (P(interaction) = 0.04). CONCLUSION: In this consortium study, two ADORA2A polymorphisms were inversely associated with PD risk, but there was weak evidence of interaction with coffee consumption. In contrast, the coffee-PD association was strongest among slow metabolizers of caffeine who were homozygous carriers of the CYP1A2 polymorphisms.

Autoimmune diseases prior to the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis: a population-based case-control study.

The objective of this study was to determine whether patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) are more likely to have other autoimmune disorders particularly prior to the diagnosis of MS. We conducted a population-based case-control study of patients enrolled in the Northern California Kaiser Permanente Medical Care Program. Electronic clinical records through 2005 were used to ascertain incident and prevalent MS cases and identify the presence and timing of 44 other diagnoses. Controls were matched 5:1 for gender, age, and Kaiser membership characteristics. We identified 5296 MS cases (including 924 diagnosed between 2001 and 2004) and 26,478 matched controls. Prior to MS diagnosis, cases were more likely than controls to have uveitis (OR = 3.2, 95%; CI 1.7-5.7), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD, OR = 1.7; 95%CI 1.2-2.5), and Bell's palsy (OR = 3.2; 95%CI 1.2-8.3). Cases were also more likely to develop Guillain- Barré syndrome (GBS, OR = 5.0; 95%CI 1.6-15.4) and bullous pemphigoid (OR = 6.7; 95%CI 1.5-29.9). Cases were not more likely than controls to have or to develop rheumatoid arthritis, lupus or thyroiditis. MS may share environmental triggers, genetic susceptibilities and/or alterations in immune homeostasis with IBD and uveitis, but not with other autoimmune disorders.

Pelvic floor disorders and quality of life in women with self-reported irritable bowel syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Quality of life among women with irritable bowel syndrome may be affected by pelvic floor disorders. AIM: To assess the association of self-reported irritable bowel syndrome with urinary incontinence, pelvic organ prolapse, sexual function and quality of life. METHODS: We analysed data from the Reproductive Risks for Incontinence Study at Kaiser Permanente, a random population-based study of 2109 racially diverse women (mean age = 56). Multivariate analyses assessed the association of irritable bowel syndrome with pelvic floor disorders and quality of life. RESULTS: The prevalence of irritable bowel syndrome was 9.7% (n = 204). Women with irritable bowel had higher adjusted odds of reporting symptomatic pelvic organ prolapse (OR 2.4; 95% CI, 1.4-4.1) and urinary urgency (OR 1.4; 95% CI, 1.0-1.9); greater bother from pelvic organ prolapse (OR 4.3; 95% CI, 1.5-11.9) and faecal incontinence (OR 2.0; 95% CI, 1.3-3.2); greater lifestyle impact from urinary incontinence (OR 2.2; 95% CI, 1.3-3.8); and worse quality of life (P < 0.01). Women with irritable bowel reported more inability to relax and enjoy sexual activity (OR 1.8; 95% CI, 1.3-2.6) and lower ratings for sexual satisfaction (OR 1.8; 95% CI, 1.3-2.5), but no difference in sexual frequency, interest or ability to have an orgasm. CONCLUSIONS: Women with irritable bowel are more likely to report symptomatic pelvic organ prolapse and sexual dysfunction, and report lower quality of life.

Effects of urinary incontinence, comorbidity and race on quality of life outcomes in women.

PURPOSE: We investigated the effects of comorbidity and urinary incontinence on both generic and incontinence specific quality of life outcome measures, and investigated whether the association between urinary incontinence and quality of life varies by race. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Study participants were 2,109 women 40 to 69 years old randomly selected from an urban health maintenance organization and interviewed in person for a study of risk factors for urinary incontinence. The sample was racially diverse consisting of 48% white, 18% black, 17% Hispanic and 16% Asian-American women. In addition to incontinence, reproductive and medical history questionnaires, all participants completed the Medical Outcomes Study Short Form 36, a measure of health related quality of life. All participants with daily and weekly incontinence (29%) completed the Incontinence Impact Questionnaire, an incontinence specific quality of life measure. The health maintenance organization's inpatient and outpatient electronic databases were used to calculate a Charlson comorbidity index score for each participant. ANCOVA was used to produce a model adjusting for sociodemographic variables, comorbidity and incontinence frequency. The same model was run for each of 4 racial groupings to examine differences by race/ethnicity. RESULTS: Urinary incontinence is significantly associated with a decreased quality of life and those with more frequent incontinence have significantly lower quality of life scores. In our model the Charlson score, an objective measure of comorbidity based on hospital and physician records, also has a significant negative impact on quality of life. When comorbidity is controlled, incontinence frequency continues to have a significant negative association with quality of life except among the sickest women. For women with the greatest extent of comorbidity, incontinence frequency is not significantly associated with negative quality of life outcomes. We did not find clear patterns of variation by race. CONCLUSIONS: Urinary incontinence and comorbidity each have an independent and significant role in reducing quality of life outcomes for all but the sickest women.

Minimum incidence of primary cervical dystonia in a multiethnic health care population.

BACKGROUND: The two existing estimates of the incidence of primary cervical dystonia were based on observations in relatively ethnically homogeneous populations of European descent. OBJECTIVE: To estimate the minimum incidence of primary cervical dystonia in the multiethnic membership of a health maintenance organization in Northern California. METHODS: Using a combination of electronic medical records followed by medical chart reviews, we identified incident cases of cervical dystonia first diagnosed between 1997 and 1999. RESULTS: We identified 66 incident cases of cervical dystonia from 8.2 million person-years of observation. The minimum estimate of the incidence of cervical dystonia in this population is 0.80 per 100,000 person-years. Ethnicity-specific incidence rates were calculated for individuals over age 30. Incidence was higher in white individuals (1.23 per 100,000 person-years) than in persons of other races (0.15 per 100,000 person-years, p < 0.0001). The minimum estimated incidence was 2.5 times higher in women than in men (1.14 vs 0.45 per 100,000 person-years, p = 0.0005). The average age at diagnosis was higher in women (56 years) than in men (45 years, p = 0.0004). There was no significant difference in reported symptom duration prior to diagnosis between women and men (3.9 vs 5.3 years). CONCLUSION: The estimated incidence of diagnosed cervical dystonia among white individuals in this Northern Californian population is similar to previous estimates in more ethnically homogeneous populations of largely European descent. The incidence in other races, including Hispanic, Asian, and black appears to be significantly lower. The incidence is also higher in women than in men.

Urinary incontinence and pelvic floor dysfunction in Asian-American women.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to describe the prevalence, risk factors, and impact of urinary incontinence and other pelvic floor disorders among Asian-American women. STUDY DESIGN: This was a population-based cohort study of older women randomly selected from age and race strata. RESULTS: Weekly urinary incontinence was reported by 65 of 345 Asian women (18%), with stress and urge incontinence being approximately equally common. In multivariate analysis, higher body mass index (greater than 25 kg/m2) was associated with both stress incontinence (odds ratio 4.90, 95% confidence interval 1.76 to 13.68) and urge incontinence (odds ratio 2.49, 95% confidence interval 1.01 to 6.16) in Asians. Hysterectomy was a significant risk factor for stress incontinence (odds ratio 2.79, 95% confidence interval 1.03 to 7.54). Only 34% of Asian women with weekly urinary incontinence reported ever having sought treatment. Pelvic floor exercises were the most common form of treatment, being used by 29% of Asian women with weekly incontinence. Asians were less likely then white women to report anal incontinence (21% versus 29%, P = .007), although this difference became nonsignificant after adjusting for differences in risk factors. CONCLUSION: Asian women share some risk factors for stress and urge urinary incontinence with white women. Urinary incontinence is associated with anal incontinence among Asian women.

Effect of reproductive factors and postmenopausal hormone use on the risk of Parkinson disease.

OBJECTIVE: Parkinson disease (PD) is less common in women possibly because of hormonal or reproductive influences. The objective of this study was to evaluate the associations of reproductive factors and postmenopausal hormone use with the risk of PD among postmenopausal women. METHODS: Incident cases (n = 178) and randomly selected age-matched controls (n = 189) who were members of the Kaiser Permanente Medical Care Program (KPMCP) of Northern California participated in the study conducted during the years 1994 to 1995. Statistical analyses were carried out using logistic regression. RESULTS: The association of postmenopausal hormone use with PD risk depended on the type of menopause. Among women with history of a hysterectomy with or without an oophorectomy, estrogen use alone was associated with a 2.6-fold increased risk (adjusted odds ratio (OR) 2.6, 95% CI: 1.1 to 6.1) and significant trends in the risk of PD were observed with increasing duration of estrogen use, but disease risk was not influenced by recency of use. In contrast, among women with natural menopause, no increased risk of PD was observed with hormone use (estrogen alone or a combined estrogen-progestin regimen). Early age at final menstrual period (44 years or younger) was associated with reduction in risk (adjusted OR 0.5, 95% CI: 0.3 to 1.0). Age at menarche and parity were not associated with the risk of PD. CONCLUSION: Postmenopausal use of estrogen alone may increase the risk of Parkinson disease (PD) among women with a hysterectomy. Among women with natural menopause for whom the usual treatment is combined estrogen-progestin therapy, no increased risk of PD was observed.

Cost of pelvic organ prolapse surgery in the United States.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the annual direct cost to society of pelvic organ prolapse operations in the United States. METHODS: We multiplied the number of pelvic organ prolapse operations identified in the 1997 National Hospital Discharge Survey by national average Medicare reimbursement for physician services and hospitalizations. Although this reimbursement does not estimate the actual cost, it is a proxy for cost, which estimates what society pays for the procedures. RESULTS: In 1997, direct costs of pelvic organ prolapse surgery were 1012 million dollars (95% confidence interval [CI] 775 dollars, 1251 million), including 494 dollars million (49%) for vaginal hysterectomy, 279 million dollars (28%) for cystocele and rectocele repair, and 135 million dollars (13%) for abdominal hysterectomy. Physician services accounted for 29% (298 million dollars) of total costs, and hospitalization accounted for 71% (714 million dollars). Twenty-one percent of pelvic organ prolapse operations included urinary incontinence procedures (218 million dollars). If all operations were reimbursed by non-Medicare sources, the annual estimated cost would increase by 52% to 1543 million dollars. CONCLUSION: The annual direct costs of operations for pelvic organ prolapse are substantial.

The cost of health conditions in a health maintenance organization.

In this retrospective cohort analysis of all adults who were members of Kaiser Permanente, Northern California, between July 1995 and June 1996 (N = 2,076,303), the authors estimated the prevalence, average annual costs per person, and percentage of total direct medical expenditures attributable to each of 25 chronic and acute conditions. Ordinary least squares regression was used to adjust for age, gender, and comorbidities. The costs attributable to the 25 conditions accounted for 78 percent of the health maintenance organization's total direct medical expense for this age-group. Injury accounted for a higher proportion (11.5 percent) of expenditures than any other single condition. Three cardiovascular conditions--ischemic heart disease, hypertension, and congestive heart failure--together accounted for 17 percent of direct medical expense and separately accounted for 6.8 percent, 5.7 percent, and 4.0 percent, respectively. Renal failure ($22,636), colorectal cancer ($10,506), pneumonia ($9,499), and lung cancer ($8,612) were the most expensive conditions per person per year.

Body size, age at shaving initiation, and prostate cancer in a large, multiracial cohort.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to examine the potential relationship between body size, self-reported age at initiation of shaving, and subsequent risk of prostate cancer in a large, racially diverse cohort of men followed for up to 32 years. METHODS: The study population included 70,712 male subscribers to the Kaiser Permanente Medical Care Program who had received a multiphasic health checkup between 1964-1973. This general health checkup consisted of a number of laboratory tests and physical measurements, as well as a self-completed health questionnaire that included a request for men to record the age when they began shaving. Subjects were followed for the development of prostate cancer, using the local tumor registry. Cox regression was used to estimate relative risks (RR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). RESULTS: Altogether, 2, 079 men in the study cohort were diagnosed with prostate cancer. There was a very strong positive association between prostate cancer risk and birth cohort. After adjusting for race, age, and birth year, there was no association between height, weight, body mass index, or several other anthropometric measures and prostate cancer risk in the full cohort. There was a suggestion of a very weak positive association between height and prostate cancer risk among white men. There also was no overall association between age at shaving initiation and prostate cancer risk, although nonwhite men who started shaving at a young age (

Cause of death in men diagnosed with prostate carcinoma.

BACKGROUND: Prostate carcinoma is one of the leading causes of death in men. Although the mortality rate is high, it still may underestimate the number of deaths associated with the disease. This study was conducted to compare causes of death among men previously diagnosed with prostate carcinoma and to examine the extent to which differences in cause of death (death from prostate carcinoma vs. death from other causes) varied by age, race, clinical factors, and comorbid conditions. METHODS: A review was conducted of the medical records of decedent members of the Kaiser Permanente Medical Care program who previously were diagnosed with prostate carcinoma between January 1980 and December 1984 (n=584). The review focused on demographic factors, symptoms, diagnostic tests, stage of disease, and treatment. Data on comorbidity were obtained from a computerized discharge summary. Logistic regression analysis was used to estimate odds ratios. RESULTS: Approximately 54% of the decedent prostate carcinoma patients died of their prostate carcinoma. Decedents who were black, age < or = 65 years, diagnosed with more advanced disease stage, recipients of hormonal therapy, and whose death occurred > 6 months after diagnosis were more likely than others to die of prostate carcinoma. In contrast, the likelihood of dying of some other cause was associated with concurrent cardiovascular disease, after adjustment for the effects of race, age, and disease stage. There also were significant two-way age-race and age-time-to-death interactions. CONCLUSIONS: The prognostic significance of cardiovascular disease in prostate carcinoma patients should be investigated in subsequent survival studies. A number of questions need to be addressed delineating the complex relations between coexisting diseases and their treatment.

Risk factors for incident and recurrent condylomata acuminata among men. A population-based study.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The rapid increase in the number of physician office visits for condylomata acuminata and the association of human papillomavirus and cancer has prompted renewed interest in the epidemiology of this sexually-transmitted disease. Few epidemiologic studies have examined what risk factors are associated with condylomata acuminata in men. GOAL: To determine what factors may predispose a man to the occurrence of condylomata acuminata. STUDY DESIGN: A population-based case-control study was conducted among male members of a health maintenance organization. Patients were men 18 years or older who were seen for condyloma at one of four primary care clinics of Group Health Cooperative of Puget Sound between April 1, 1987 and September 30, 1991. Control subjects were frequency matched to the patients on clinic site, race, and age. In-person interviews were used to ascertain exposure histories from both patients and control subjects. RESULTS: Recurrent condyloma was reported by about one third of our patients. Patients with multiple partners were strongly associated with developing the disease. Several factors were either more strongly or only associated with recurrent disease. Other behavioral measures, such as recreational drug use, were also related the occurrence of condyloma. CONCLUSION: These results confirm the sexual-transmitted mechanism of condyloma in men. Exposure to multiple partners was associated with elevated risk of both recurrent and incident disease. Other cofactors may be involved in the etiology of condyloma.

Risk factors for incident and recurrent condylomata acuminata among women. A population-based study.

BACKGROUND: Condylomata acuminata is one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) diagnosed in the United States, yet relatively little research has been conducted on the determinants of this disease in well-defined populations. GOAL: To determine the exposures that predispose a woman to the development of condylomata acuminata or genital warts. STUDY DESIGN: A population-based case-control study was conducted among enrollees of Group Health Cooperative of Puget Sound. Patients (94 women with incident and 55 women with recurrent condyloma) were diagnosed between April 1, 1987 and September 30, 1991. Control subjects were 133 women without a history of genital warts. An in-person interview was conducted to collect information on subject characteristics, exposures, and on all episodes of genital warts. RESULTS: Women with five or more partners within the 5 years before reference date were over seven times more likely to have incident condyloma (relative risk [RR], 7.5; 95% confidence interval [CI], 3.1-18.1) and over 12 times more likely to have recurrent condyloma (RR, 12.8; 95% CI, 4.2-38.9) compared with women with only one sexual partner during this time period. An increased risk of incident condyloma was also associated with a history of any STD (RR, 2.6; 95% CI, 1.1-5.8), a history of oral herpes (RR, 2.2; 95% CI, 1.1-4.4), and a history of allergies (RR, 2.0 95% CI, 1.0-3.8). Our data did not support a strong association between risk of condyloma and smoking or recent use of oral contraceptives. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that risk of condyloma is primarily related to sexual behavior. We did not observe a strong association between risk of condyloma and many of the exposures considered to be potential cofactors for anogenital cancers associated with other types of human papillomaviruses.

Race, prostate cancer survival, and membership in a large health maintenance organization.

BACKGROUND: Population-based cancer registry data have shown that black men with prostate cancer have poorer stage-specific survival than white men, while studies in equal-access health care systems have not found racial differences in stage-specific survival. This study was designed to test the hypothesis that black men and white men with prostate cancer have equal stage-specific survival in equal-access health care systems. METHODS: We conducted a cohort study using cancer registry data from all incident cases of prostate cancer occurring in a five-county San Francisco Bay Area region. Incident cases occurred among members (5263 cases, from January 1973 through June 1995) and nonmembers (16,019 cases, from January 1973 through December 1992) of the Kaiser Permanente Medical Care Program, a large health maintenance organization. Death rate ratios (DRRs, black men versus white men) for Kaiser members and nonmembers were computed for all stages combined (adjusting for age and stage) and for each stage (adjusting for age). RESULTS: Among Kaiser members, adjusted DRRs comparing black men with white men were as follows: all stages combined, 1.28 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.14-1.44); local stage, 1.23 (95% CI = 1.01-1.51); regional stage, 1.30 (95% CI = 0.97-1.75); and distant stage, 1.27 (95% CI = 1.07-1.50). Corresponding DRRs for nonmembers were as follows: all stages combined, 1.22 (95% CI = 1.14-1.30); local stage, 1.24 (95% CI = 1.09-1.41); regional stage, 1.48 (95% CI = 1.29-1.68); and distant stage, 1.01 (95% CI = 0.91-1.12). CONCLUSIONS: These results show poorer prostate cancer survival for black men compared with white men in an equal-access medical care setting. The findings are most consistent with the hypothesis of increased tumor virulence in blacks.

Quality of life, health care utilization, and costs among women undergoing hysterectomy in a managed-care setting.

OBJECTIVE: We compared quality of life, utilization, and costs for women undergoing elective abdominal, laparoscopically assisted vaginal, or vaginal hysterectomy within a managed-care organization. STUDY DESIGN: A prospective study of 287 women who underwent an elective hysterectomy was performed. RESULTS: Patients undergoing a vaginal hysterectomy reported returning to normal activity levels sooner and had more favorable quality-of-life scores than did those undergoing laparoscopically assisted vaginal hysterectomy or abdominal hysterectomy. Laparoscopically assisted vaginal hysterectomy was often nearly as favorable as vaginal hysterectomy, particularly at 28 days after the operation, whereas the abdominal hysterectomy group consistently reported the poorest postoperative quality-of-life scores. No significant differences were noted in utilization or costs in the 60-day preoperative period, whereas hospitalization and postoperative costs were highest among the abdominal hysterectomy group and lowest for those undergoing a vaginal hysterectomy. CONCLUSIONS: Vaginal hysterectomy resulted in better quality-of-life outcomes and lower utilization and costs compared with laparoscopically assisted vaginal or abdominal hysterectomy.