Insight into the Nature of the ZnO x Promoter during Methanol Synthesis.

Despite the great commercial relevance of zinc-promoted copper catalysts for methanol synthesis, the nature of the Cu-ZnO x synergy and the nature of the active Zn-based promoter species under industrially relevant conditions are still a topic of vivid debate. Detailed characterization of the chemical speciation of any promoter under high-pressure working conditions is challenging but specifically hampered by the large fraction of Zn spectator species bound to the oxidic catalyst support. We present the use of weakly interacting graphitic carbon supports as a tool to study the active speciation of the Zn promoter phase that is in close contact with the Cu nanoparticles using time-resolved X-ray absorption spectroscopy under working conditions. Without an oxidic support, much fewer Zn species need to be added for maximum catalyst activity. A 5-15 min exposure to 1 bar H2 at 543 K only slightly reduces the Zn(II), but exposure for several hours to 20 bar H2/CO and/or H2/CO/CO2 leads to an average Zn oxidation number of +(0.5-0.6), only slightly increasing to +0.8 in a 20 bar H2/CO2 feed. This means that most of the added Zn is in a zerovalent oxidation state during methanol synthesis conditions. The Zn average coordination number is 8, showing that this phase is not at the surface but surrounded by other metal atoms (whether Zn or Cu), and indicating that the Zn diffuses into the Cu nanoparticles under reaction conditions. The time scale of this process corresponds to that of the generally observed activation period for these catalysts. These results reveal the speciation of the relevant Zn promoter species under methanol synthesis conditions and, more generally, present the use of weakly interacting graphitic supports as an important strategy to avoid excessive spectator species, thereby allowing us to study the nature of relevant promoter species.

Manganese Oxide as a Promoter for Copper Catalysts in CO2 and CO Hydrogenation.

In this work, we discuss the role of manganese oxide as a promoter in Cu catalysts supported on graphitic carbon during hydrogenation of CO2 and CO. MnOx is a selectivity modifier in an H2/CO2 feed and is a highly effective activity promoter in an H2/CO feed. Interestingly, the presence of MnOx suppresses the methanol formation from CO2 (TOF of 0.7 ⋅ 10-3 s-1 at 533 K and 40 bar) and enhances the low-temperature reverse water-gas shift reaction (TOF of 5.7 ⋅ 10-3 s-1) with a selectivity to CO of 87 %C. Using time-resolved XAS at high temperatures and pressures, we find significant absorption of CO2 to the MnO, which is reversed if CO2 is removed from the feed. This work reveals fundamental differences in the promoting effect of MnOx and ZnOx and contributes to a better understanding of the role of reducible oxide promoters in Cu-based hydrogenation catalysts.

Nature of cobalt species during the in situ sulfurization of Co(Ni)Mo/Al2O3 hydrodesulfurization catalysts.

The evolution in local structure and electronic properties of cobalt was investigated during in situ sulfurization. Using a combination of 1s X-ray absorption (XAS) and 1s3p resonant inelastic X-ray scattering (RIXS), the valence, coordination and symmetry of cobalt ions were tracked in two cobalt-promoted molybdenum oxide precursors of the hydrodesulfurization catalyst system, namely Co-Mo/Al2O3 and Co-Ni-Mo/Al2O3. Extended X-ray absorption fine structure shows that the Co-O bonds were replaced with Co-S bonds as a function of reaction temperature. The cobalt K pre-edge intensity shows that the symmetry of cobalt was modified from Co3+ Oh and Co2+ Oh to a Co2+ ion where the inversion symmetry is broken, in agreement with a square-pyramidal site. The 1s3p RIXS data revealed the presence of an intermediate cobalt oxy-sulfide species. This species was not detected from XAS and was determined from the increased information obtained from the 1s3p RIXS data. The cobalt XAS and RIXS data show that nickel has a significant influence on the formation of the cobalt oxy-sulfide intermediate species prior to achieving the fully sulfided state at T > 400°C.

In-situ X-Ray Absorption Near Edge Structure Spectroscopy of a Solid Catalyst using a Laboratory-Based Set-up.

An in-situ laboratory-based X-ray Absorption Near Edge Structure (XANES) Spectroscopy set-up is presented, which allows performing long-term experiments on a solid catalyst at relevant reaction conditions of temperature and pressure. Complementary to research performed at synchrotron radiation facilities the approach is showcased for a Co/TiO2 Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis (FTS) catalyst. Supported cobalt metal nanoparticles next to a (very small) fraction of cobalt(II) titanate, which is an inactive phase for FTS, were detected, with no signs of re-oxidation of the supported cobalt metal nanoparticles during FTS at 523 K, 5 bar and 200 h, indicating that cobalt metal is maintained as the main active phase during FTS.

Capturing the Genesis of an Active Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis Catalyst with Operando X-ray Nanospectroscopy.

A state-of-the-art operando spectroscopic technique is applied to Co/TiO2 catalysts, which account for nearly half of the world's transportation fuels produced by Fischer-Tropsch catalysis. This allows determination of, at a spatial resolution of approximately 50 nm, the interdependence of formed hydrocarbon species in the inorganic catalyst. Observed trends show intra- and interparticular heterogeneities previously believed not to occur in particles under 200 µm. These heterogeneities are strongly dependent on changes in H2 /CO ratio, but also on changes thereby induced on the Co and Ti valence states. We have captured the genesis of an active FTS particle over its propagation to steady-state operation, in which microgradients lead to the gradual saturation of the Co/TiO2 catalyst surface with long chain hydrocarbons (i.e., organic film formation).

In situ X-ray Raman spectroscopy study of the hydrogen sorption properties of lithium borohydride nanocomposites.

Nanoconfined alkali metal borohydrides are promising materials for reversible hydrogen storage applications, but the characterization of hydrogen sorption in these materials is difficult. Here we show that with in situ X-ray Raman spectroscopy (XRS) we can track the relative amounts of intermediates and final products formed during de- and re-hydrogenation of nanoconfined lithium borohydride (LiBH4) and therefore we can possibly identify the de- and re-hydrogenation pathways. In the XRS of nanoconfined LiBH4 at different points in the de- and re-hydrogenation, we identified phases that lead to the conclusion that de- and re-hydrogenation pathways in nanoconfined LiBH4 are different from bulk LiBH4: intercalated lithium (LiCx), boron and lithium hydride were formed during de-hydrogenation, but as well Li2B12H12 was observed indicating that there is possibly some bulk LiBH4 present in the nanoconfined sample LiBH4-C as prepared. Surprisingly, XRS revealed that the de-hydrogenated products of the LiBH4-C nanocomposites can be partially rehydrogenated to about 90% of Li2B12H12 and 2-5% of LiBH4 at a mild condition of 1 bar H2 and 350 °C. This suggests that re-hydrogenation occurs via the formation of Li2B12H12. Our results show that XRS is an elegant technique that can be used for in and ex situ study of the hydrogen sorption properties of nanoconfined and bulk light-weight metal hydrides in energy storage applications.

X-ray nanoscopy of cobalt Fischer-Tropsch catalysts at work.

Transmission X-ray microscopy has been used to investigate individual Co/TiO2 Fischer-Tropsch (FT) catalyst particles in 2-D and 3-D with 30 nm spatial resolution. Tomographic elemental mapping showed that Co is heterogeneously concentrated in the centre of the catalyst particles. In addition, it was found that Co is mostly metallic during FT at 250 °C and 10 bar. No evidence for Co oxidation was found.

Heterogeneities of the nanostructure of platinum/zeolite y catalysts revealed by electron tomography.

To develop structure-performance relationships for important catalysts, a detailed characterization of their morphology is essential. Using electron tomography, we determined in three dimensions the structure of Pt/zeolite Y bifunctional catalysts. Optimum experimental conditions enabled for the first time high-resolution 3D imaging of Pt particles as small as 1 nm located inside zeolite micropores. Semiautomated image analysis of 3D reconstructions provided an efficient study of numbers, size distributions, and interparticle distances of thousands of Pt particles within individual zeolite crystals. Upon extending this approach to a number of zeolite crystals of one batch of Pt/zeolite Y catalyst, heterogeneities were revealed. The Pt loading, an important parameter for catalyst performance, varied between zeolite crystals up to a factor of 35. This discovery calls for re-evaluation of catalyst preparation methods and suggests potential for lowering the nominal loading with noble metals.

Transition-Metal Nanoparticle Oxidation in a Chemically Nonhomogenous Environment Revealed by 2p3d Resonant X-ray Emission.

X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) is often employed in fields such as catalysis to determine whether transition-metal nanoparticles are oxidized. Here we show 2p3/2 XAS and 2p3d resonant X-ray emission spectroscopy (RXES) data of oleate-coated cobalt nanoparticles with average diameters of 4.0, 4.2, 5.0, 8.4, and 15.2 nm. Two particle batches were exposed to air for different periods of time, whereas the others were measured as synthesized. In the colloidal nanoparticles, the cobalt sites can have different chemical environments (metallic/oxidized/surface-coordinated), and it is shown that most XAS data cannot distinguish whether the nanoparticles are oxidized or surface-coated. In contrast, the high-energy resolution RXES spectra reveal whether more than the first metal layer is oxidized based on the unique energetic separation of spectral features related to the formal metal (X-ray fluorescence) or to a metal oxide (d-d excitations). This is the first demonstration of metal 2p3d RXES as a novel surface science tool.

Structural properties of subnanometer thick Y layers in extreme ultraviolet multilayer mirrors.

We studied the structure and optical properties of B(4)C/Mo/Y/Si multilayer systems. Using extended x-ray absorption fine structure measurements at the Y and Mo K-edge, the structure of the subnanometer thick Y layer and the underlying Mo layer were analyzed. It was found that even a 0.2 nm thick Y layer significantly reduced silicon diffusion toward Mo, thus reducing Mo silicide formation. Hard x-ray reflectometry showed that the difference in average interface roughness of the B(4)C/Mo/Y/Si multilayer structure compared to Mo/Si and B(4)C/Mo/B(4)C/Si multilayer structures was negligible. Soft x-ray reflectometry showed optical improvement of B(4)C/Mo/Y/Si with respect to Mo/Si and B(4)C/Mo/B(4)C/Si multilayer structures.

In situ X-ray Raman spectroscopy of LiBH4.

X-Ray Raman Spectroscopy (XRS) is used to study the electronic properties of bulk lithium borohydride (LiBH(4)) and LiBH(4) in porous carbon nano-composites (LiBH(4)/C) during dehydrogenation. The lithium (Li), boron (B) and carbon (C) K-edges are studied and compared with calculations of the starting material and intermediate compounds. Comparison of the B and C K-edge XRS spectra of the as-prepared samples with rehydrogenated samples shows that the B and C electronic structure is largely regained after rehydrogenation. Both Li and C K-edge spectra show that during dehydrogenation, part of the Li intercalates into the porous carbon. This study shows that XRS in combination with calculations is a promising tool to study the electronic properties of nano-crystalline light-weight materials for energy storage.

Implementation of a combined SAXS/WAXS/QEXAFS set-up for time-resolved in situexperiments.

It has previously been shown that there are many benefits to be obtained in combining several techniques in one in situ set-up to study chemical processes in action. Many of these combined set-ups make use of two techniques, but in some cases it is possible and useful to combine even more. A set-up has recently been developed that combines three X-ray-based techniques, small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS/WAXS) and quick-scanning EXAFS (QEXAFS), for the study of dynamical chemical processes. The set-up is able to probe the same part of the sample during the synthesis process and is thus able to follow changes at the nanometre to micrometre scale during, for example, materials self-assembly, with a time resolution of the order of a few minutes. The practicality of this kind of experiment has been illustrated by studying zeotype crystallization processes and revealed important new insights into the interplay of the various stages of ZnAPO-34 formation. The flexibility of this set-up for studying other processes and for incorporating other additional non-X-ray-based experimental techniques has also been explored and demonstrated for studying the stability/activity of iron molybdate catalysts for the anaerobic decomposition of methanol.

Monitoring the coordination of aluminium during microporous oxide crystallisation by in situ soft X-ray absorption spectroscopy.

An in situ cell, which is capable of obtaining time resolved soft X-ray data (200 eV < E < 3000 eV) under hydrothermal conditions has been developed and used to study the self-assembly processes occurring during microporous aluminophosphate crystallization.

A combined SAXS/WAXS/XAFS setup capable of observing concurrent changes across the nano-to-micrometer size range in inorganic solid crystallization processes.

A novel combined SAXS/WAXS/XAFS setup for studying the self-assembly processes occurring during the crystallization of porous materials, such as ZnAlPO-34, is described. In a single experiment, it has been possible to obtain congruent and time-resolved information on aggregation processes in the synthesis gel, the incorporation process of Zn2+ ions in the framework, and the formation of the crystalline material.

Adding a third dimension to operando spectroscopy: a combined UV-Vis, Raman and XAFS setup to study heterogeneous catalysts under working conditions.

The potential of combined operando UV-Vis/Raman/XAFS has been explored by studying the active site and deactivation mechanism of silica- and alumina-supported molybdenum oxide catalysts under propane dehydrogenation conditions.

Atomic XAFS as a tool to probe the electronic properties of supported noble metal nanoclusters.

Atomic XAFS is a very attractive technique for probing electronic properties of supported metal nanoclusters. For platinum nanoparticles on different supports, the technique is found to be in good agreement with infrared CO adsorption measurements. The advantages of AXAFS, however, are that no probe molecule is required and that real-time measurements under reaction conditions are possible.

Promotion effects in the oxidation of CO over zeolite-supported Pt nanoparticles.

Well-defined Pt-nanoparticles with an average diameter of 1 nm supported on a series of zeolite Y samples containing different monovalent (H+, Na+, K+, Rb+, and Cs+) and divalent (Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, and Ba2+) cations have been used as model systems to investigate the effect of promotor elements in the oxidation of CO in excess oxygen. Time-resolved infrared spectroscopy measurements allowed us to study the temperature-programmed desorption of CO from supported Pt nanoparticles to monitor the electronic changes in the local environment of adsorbed CO. It was found that the red shift of the linear Pt-coordinated CO vibration compared to that of gas-phase CO increases with an increasing cation radius-to-charge ratio. In addition, a systematic shift from linear (L) to bridge (B) bonded CO was observed for decreasing Lewis acidity, as expressed by the Kamlet-Taft parameter alpha. A decreasing alpha results in an increasing electron charge on the framework oxygen atoms and therefore an increasing electron charge on the supported Pt nanoparticles. This observation was confirmed with X-ray absorption spectroscopy, and the intensity of the experimental Pt atomic XAFS correlates with the Lewis acidity of the cation introduced. Furthermore, it was found that the CO coverage increases with increasing electron density on the Pt nanoparticles. This increasing electron density was found to result in an increased CO oxidation activity; i.e., the T(50%) for CO oxidation decreases with decreasing alpha. In other words, basic promotors facilitate the chemisorption of CO on the Pt particles. The most promoted CO oxidation catalyst is a Pt/K-Y sample, which has a T(50%) of 390 K and a L:B intensity ratio of 2.7. The obtained results provide guidelines to design improved CO oxidation catalysts.

Synchrotron radiation effects on catalytic systems as probed with a combined in-situ UV-vis/XAFS spectroscopic setup.

UV-vis spectroscopy was used in a combined in-situ UV-vis/XAFS spectroscopic setup to study the synchrotron radiation effect on aqueous homogeneous copper solutions. Two different systems were studied. In the first study, the focus was on a copper bipyridine-catalyzed oxidation of benzyl alcohol to benzaldehyde with 2,2,6,6- tetramethylpiperidinyl-1-oxy and base as cocatalysts. It was found that when the reaction mixture is exposed to the X-ray beam, the features present in the in-situ UV-vis spectrum develop differently compared to the situation when the reaction mixture is not exposed to the X-ray beam. Besides a temperature effect of the X-ray beam, both the UV-vis analysis and the XAFS analysis showed a reducing influence of the X-ray beam on the sample. To investigate this in more detail, we studied a series of dilute aqueous copper solutions from different precursor salts, viz., Cu(NO3)2.3H2O, CuSO4.5H2O, CuCl2, and CuBr2. It was found that the different aqueous copper solutions have different stabilities under the influence of the X-ray beam. Especially the solution from the CuCl2 precursor salt was found to be unstable and to be subjected to reduction. These examples illustrate the need for a second technique, such as in-situ UV-vis spectroscopy, to evaluate the effect of synchrotron radiation used to measure in-situ XAFS on catalytic systems.

Local structure of the zeolitic catalytically active site during reaction.

The structural changes of the catalytic active site that occur during catalytic reaction in an acidic zeolite are detected. The local structure of the zeolitic Brønsted active site is a distorted tetrahedrally coordinated aluminum that has three short and one long aluminum-oxygen bond. Using in situ Al K edge X-ray absorption spectroscopy, the adsorption of a reactive intermediate in the oligomerization of ethene changed the local structure of the catalytic active site; the long aluminum oxygen bond is partially relaxed. At increasingly higher temperature, extensive coking of the catalyst frees the Brønsted acid site from the reactive intermediate, restoring the asymmetric coordination. These measurements show that application of in situ Al K edge spectroscopy provides fundamental insight into the structure of zeolitic catalytically active sites during catalytic action.

Three-coordinate aluminum in zeolites observed with in situ x-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy at the Al K-edge: flexibility of aluminum coordinations in zeolites.

Application of in situ X-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy (XANES) at the Al K-edge provides unique insight into the flexibilty of the aluminum coordinations in zeolites as a function of treatment or during true reaction conditions. A unique, previously not observed, pre-edge feature is detected in zeolites H-Mordenite and steamed and unsteamed H-Beta at temperatures above 675 K. Spectra simulations using the full multiple scattering code Feff8 identify the unique pre-edge feature as three-coordinate aluminum. The amount of three-fold coordinated aluminum is a function of temperature and pretreatment of a zeolite: a steamed zeolite Beta contains more three-coordinate aluminum than an unsteamed sample. No clear differences between zeolites H-Mordenite and H-Beta were observed. Octahedrally coordinated aluminum forms in zeolites H-Mordenite and H-Beta at room temperature in a stream of wet helium. This octahedrally coordinated aluminum is unstable at temperatures higher than 395 K, where it quantitatively reverts to the tetrahedral coordination.