Embedded fragments from U.S. military personnel--chemical analysis and potential health implications.

BACKGROUND: The majority of modern war wounds are characterized by high-energy blast injuries containing a wide range of retained foreign materials of a metallic or composite nature. Health effects of retained fragments range from local or systemic toxicities to foreign body reactions or malignancies, and dependent on the chemical composition and corrosiveness of the fragments in vivo. Information obtained by chemical analysis of excised fragments can be used to guide clinical decisions regarding the need for fragment removal, to develop therapeutic interventions, and to better anticipate future medical problems from retained fragment related injuries. In response to this need, a new U.S Department of Defense (DoD) directive has been issued requiring characterization of all removed fragments to provide a database of fragment types occurring in combat injuries. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study is to determine the chemical composition of retained embedded fragments removed from injured military personnel, and to relate results to histological findings in tissue adjacent to fragment material. METHODS: We describe an approach for the chemical analysis and characterization of retained fragments and adjacent tissues, and include case examples describing fragments containing depleted uranium (DU), tungsten (W), lead (Pb), and non-metal foreign bodies composed of natural and composite materials. Fragments obtained from four patients with penetrating blast wounds to the limbs were studied employing a wide range of chemical and microscopy techniques. Available adjacent tissues from three of the cases were histologically, microscopically, and chemically examined. The physical and compositional properties of the removed foreign material surfaces were examined with energy dispersive x-ray fluorescence spectrometry (EDXRF), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), laser ablation inductively-coupled plasma mass-spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), and confocal laser Raman microspectroscopy (CLRM). Quantitative chemical analysis of both fragments and available tissues was conducted employing ICP-MS. RESULTS: Over 800 fragments have been characterized and included as part of the Joint Pathology Center Embedded Fragment Registry. Most fragments were obtained from penetrating wounds sustained to the extremities, particularly soft tissue injuries. The majority of the fragments were primarily composed of a single metal such as iron, copper, or aluminum with traces of antimony, titanium, uranium, and lead. One case demonstrated tungsten in both the fragment and the connected tissue, together with lead. Capsular tissue and fragments from a case from the 1991 Kuwait conflict showed evidence of uranium that was further characterized by uranium isotopic ratios analysis to contain depleted uranium. CONCLUSIONS: The present study provides a systematic approach for obtaining a full chemical characterization of retained embedded fragments. Given the vast number of combat casualties with retained fragments, it is expected that fragment analysis will have significant implications for the optimal short and long-term care of wounded service members.

Arsenic-induced biochemical and genotoxic effects and distribution in tissues of Sprague-Dawley rats.

Arsenic (As) is a well documented human carcinogen. However, its mechanisms of toxic action and carcinogenic potential in animals have not been conclusive. In this research, we investigated the biochemical and genotoxic effects of As and studied its distribution in selected tissues of Sprague-Dawley rats. Four groups of six male rats, each weighing approximately 60 ± 2 g, were injected intraperitoneally, once a day for 5 days with doses of 5, 10, 15, 20 mg/kg bw of arsenic trioxide. A control group was also made of 6 animals injected with distilled water. Following anaesthetization, blood was collected and enzyme analysis was performed by spectrophotometry following standard protocols. At the end of experimentation, the animals were sacrificed, and the lung, liver, brain and kidney were collected 24 h after the fifth day treatment. Chromosome and micronuclei preparation was obtained from bone marrow cells. Arsenic exposure significantly increased (p<0.05) the activities of plasma alanine aminotransferase-glutamate pyruvate transaminase (ALT/GPT), and aspartate aminotransferase-glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase (AST/GOT), as well as the number of structural chromosomal aberrations (SCA) and frequency of micronuclei (MN) in the bone marrow cells. In contrast, the mitotic index in these cells was significantly reduced (p<0.05). These findings indicate that aminotransferases are candidate biomarkers for arsenic-induced hepatotoxicity. Our results also demonstrate that As has a strong genotoxic potential, as measured by the bone marrow SCA and MN tests in Sprague-Dawley rats. Total arsenic concentrations in tissues were measured by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). A dynamic reaction cell (DRC) with hydrogen gas was used to eliminate the ArCl interference at mass 75, in the measurement of total As. Total As doses in tissues tended to correlate with specific exposure levels.

Clinical and analytical toxicology of dietary supplements: a case study and a review of the literature.

The use of dietary supplements has grown dramatically in the last decade. A large number of dietary and herbal supplements escape regulatory and quality control; components of these preparations are poisonous and may contain, among other toxins, heavy metals. Uncontrolled use of dietary and herbal supplements by special populations, such as the military, may therefore pose a health risk. Clinical symptoms are not always properly attributed to dietary supplements; patients often do not mention supplement use to their health care provider. Therefore, a health risk estimate is hard to make on either the individual or the population level. The literature on this issue was reviewed and discussed in the light of a representative clinical-chemical case study. This case study was performed on a host of preparations that were used by one single individual in the military. Both essential (chromium, copper, zinc, and iron) and poisonous (arsenic, lead, and nickel) trace elements were determined using inductively coupled plasma combined with optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) or with mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Arsenic and lead were detected at exposure levels associated with health risks. These health risks were detected predominantly in hormone-containing supplements and the herbs and botanicals used for performance enhancement. To the extent that this is a representative sample, there is an underestimation of supplement use and supplement risk in the US military, if not in the general population. Since clinical symptoms may be attributed to other causes and, unless patients are specifically asked, health care providers may not be aware of their patients' use of dietary supplements, a strong support of laboratory diagnostics, such as a toxicological screening of blood or urine, is required. In addition, screening of the preparations themselves may be advised.

Urinary uranium and kidney function parameters in professional assistance workers in the Epidemiological Study Air Disaster in Amsterdam (ESADA).

BACKGROUND: The Epidemiological Study Air Disaster in Amsterdam (ESADA) aimed to assess long-term health effects in professional assistance workers involved in the 1992 air disaster in Amsterdam. As part of ESADA indications of nephrotoxicity due to exposure to uranium from the balance weights of the crashed aircraft were assessed. METHODS: Data of a historically defined cohort of 2499 (exposed and non-exposed) firefighters, police officers and hangar workers were collected 8.5 years after the disaster. Urinary uranium concentrations were determined by sector field inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Urine albumin-creatinine ratio and fractional excretion of beta(2)-microglobulin were calculated from a single-spot urine specimen and simultaneous blood sample. Exposed assistance workers were compared with their non-exposed colleagues, and associations between uranium and kidney function parameters were explored. RESULTS: Median uranium concentrations were around 2 ng/g creatinine. Median values of albumin-creatinine ratio and fractional excretion of beta(2)-microglobulin were well below the level for microalbuminuria and for tubular damage, respectively. No statistically significant differences between exposed and non-exposed workers were found in uranium concentrations and kidney function parameters, although exposed hangar workers had lower uranium concentrations. No statistically significant associations were found between uranium concentrations and kidney function parameters in the total cohort. CONCLUSIONS: Occupational exposure to the air disaster in Amsterdam was neither significantly associated with higher uranium concentrations, nor with disturbed kidney function parameters. In this large cohort of professional assistance workers, urinary uranium concentrations were in the low range compared with previously published reference populations. No indications of nephrotoxicity were found at urinary uranium concentrations around 2 ng/g creatinine.

Metals and health: a clinical toxicological perspective on tungsten and review of the literature.

Tungsten and tungsten compounds are considered toxicologically relatively safe. Concern regarding the potential health and environmental effects of depleted uranium and lead in military applications has lead many countries to explore the possibility of applying toxicologically safer metals. Heavy metal tungsten alloy-based munitions have been therefore introduced as a replacement in munitions and as kinetic energy penetrators. Although the toxicological profiles of all these metals are well known, their internalization as embedded shrapnel may be considered a new route for long-term exposure. Studies in experimental animals and cell culture indicate that pellets based on heavy metal tungsten alloy possess carcinogenic potential previously unseen for depleted uranium and/or lead. Other metals in the tungsten alloy such as nickel or cobalt may contribute to such a risk. Accordingly, the long-term tungsten-related health risk is reason for concern. This article reviews toxicological and clinical literature and provides new perspectives on tungsten and tungsten-based alloys.

Mercury exposure of mothers and newborns in Surinam: a pilot study.

AIM: To study mercury levels in hair from mothers and newborns in Surinam. METHODS: Hair and urine was collected from thirty-nine mothers of different ethnicity and hair from their newborns. The women delivered in a large hospital in the capital. Mercury analysis was performed. RESULTS: Fourteen (36%) of the mothers had elevated Hg concentrations in the hair as compared with a reference US population. Thirty-one newborns (80%) presented with a higher mercury level in hair than their mothers. A positive correlation existed between the hair levels of the mothers and their newborns. Urine Hg concentrations were not elevated. CONCLUSION: Mercury accumulates during pregnancy in the unborn. Further study is needed to elucidate the background and consequences of this finding.

Renal epithelial gene expression profile and bismuth-induced resistance against cisplatin nephrotoxicity.

Nephrotoxicity is the most important dose-limiting factor in cisplatin based anti-neoplastic treatment. Pretreatment with bismuth salts, used as pharmaceuticals to treat gastric disorders, has been demonstrated to reduce cisplatin-induced renal cell death in clinical settings and during in vivo and in vitro animal experiments. To investigate the genomic basis of this renoprotective effect, we exposed NRK-52E cells, a cell line of rat proximal tubular epithelial origin, to 33 microM Bi3+ for 12 hours, which made them resistant to cisplatin-induced apoptosis. Differentially expressed genes in treated and untreated NRK-52E cells were detected by subtraction PCR and microarray techniques. Genes found to be down regulated (0.17-0.31-times) were cytochrome c oxidase subunit I, BAR (an apoptosis regulator), heat-shock protein 70-like protein, and three proteins belonging to the translation machinery (ribosomal proteins S7 and L17, and S1, a member of the elongation factor 1-alpha family). The only up-regulated gene was glutathione S-transferase subunit 3A (1.89-times). Guided by the expression levels of these genes, it may be possible to improve renoprotective treatments during anti-neoplastic therapies.

Subacute fatal aluminum poisoning in dialyzed patients: post-mortem toxicological findings.

The population of Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles (133,000) shows a very high prevalence of end-stage renal disease (approximately 1 per 1,000). These patients are often treated chronically with haemodialysis. As the drinking water on the island is prepared by distillation of sea water, the haemodialysis fluid used to be prepared with tap water without further treatment. In 1996, the 27 patients of one of the dialysis centers on the island presented with nausea, vomiting, and hypercalcaemia in a short time span, which was initially diagnosed as 'hard water syndrome'. In spite of treatment with low-calcium dialysate, microcytic anaemia and neurological symptoms developed. Ten patients died of convulsions, sepsis, and coma. As aluminum (Al) intoxication was suspected, Al in serum (AlS) was measured. Ante mortem AlS was 808 microg/l (n = 7; range 359-1189); in the survivors AlS was 255 microg/l (n = 17; range 113-490). Normal AlS is < 10 microg/l, and <50 microg/l in asymptomatic dialyzed patients. The court requested post-mortem toxicological analysis of four patients. Al concentrations in liver, bone, and cerebral cortex were significantly increased as compared with background levels. Al intoxication was, therefore, considered to be the most likely cause of death in these patients. Investigations of the tap water supply revealed that a few weeks before the onset of the symptoms, a water conduit pipe to the dialysis unit had been replaced, which was lined with Al- and Ca-rich cement mortar. These ions leached into the distilled water and caused both Ca- and Al-intoxication through uptake from the dialysate into the patients' circulation. The symptoms of the latter were initially not recognized as they were masked by the symptoms of hypercalcaemia.

Pathways of proximal tubular cell death in bismuth nephrotoxicity.

Colloidal bismuth subcitrate (CBS), a drug for treatment of peptic ulcers, has been reported in the literature to be nephrotoxic in humans when taken in high overdoses. To investigate the mechanism of bismuth nephropathy, we developed an animal model by feeding rats single doses of CBS containing 3.0 mmol Bi/kg body weight. Terminal deoxyribonucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP-digoxigenin nick end labeling assay, immunostaining for active caspase-3, and electron microscopy showed that proximal tubular epithelial cells die by necrosis and not by apoptosis within 3 h after CBS administration. Exposure of the renal epithelial cell lines NRK-52E and LLC-PK1 to Bi(3+) in citrate buffer served as an in vitro model of bismuth nephropathy. NRK-52E cells exposed to 100 microM Bi(3+) or more died by necrosis, as was demonstrated by nuclear staining with Hoechst 33258 and flow cytometry using Alexa(488)-labeled Annexin-V and the vital nuclear dye TOPRO-3. Bismuth-induced cell death of NRK-52E cells was not prevented by the caspase-3 inhibitor z-VAD-fmk, whereas this inhibitor did prevent cisplatinum-induced apoptosis. Mitochondrial dysfunction and induction of free radicals were shown not to be involved in bismuth nephrotoxicity. The early time point of damage induction in vitro as well as in vivo and the early displacement of N-cadherin, as found in previous studies, suggest that bismuth induces cell death by destabilizing the cell membrane. In conclusion, we showed that high overdose of bismuth induced cell death by necrosis in vivo as well as in vitro, possibly by destabilization of the cell membrane.