A history of mental illness among women in the Straits Settlements in the nineteenth century.

The Straits Settlements, a collective colony under the administration of British Malaya, was a very unhealthy area in the early years of the nineteenth century. One of the most common sicknesses was mental illness, which could not be cured by medicines. The number of women suffering from mental illness was higher than in men, and it was found that there were many internal and external causes. The increasing number of women patients affected the role of mental hospitals, which were not only for treatment purposes, but also for business. This study will discuss the factors causing women to suffer from mental illness, and the role of the asylum for women mental patients in the nineteenth century.

Revisión de un libro pionero sobre epidemias de Risueño de Amador (1829) / Review of a pioneer book on epidemics by Risueño de Amador (1829)

En este artículo se revisa y comenta el libro de epidemiología escrito por el médico español Benigno Risueño de Amador (1802-1849), publicado inicialmente en francés (1829) y posteriormente traducido al español (1831). Este estudio documental retrospectivo de un manual científico-médico glosa el contenido del libro, destacando sus aspectos más importantes. El libro de casi doscientos años de antigüedad puede considerarse una valiosa y temprana contribución a la epidemio-logía, así como una muestra de la gran preocupación existente en la Europa de principios del siglo XIX por el tema de las epidemias. Representa además una valiosa contribución española, que muestra los esfuerzos realizados para avanzar en esta disciplina médica hacia una posición más científica en una época incipientemente microbiana.(AU)

This article reviews and comments on the epidemiological book written by the Spanish physician Benigno Risueño de Amador (1802-1849), initially published in French (1829), and its subsequent translation into Spanish (1831). This retrospective documentary case study of a scientific-medical manual reviews the contents of the book, highlighting its most important aspects. This almost 200-year-old book can be considered a valuable, early contribution to epidemiology, and a sign of the great concern in early 19th Europe about the subject of epidemics. It represents a valuable contribution that shows the enormous efforts made to advance in this medical discipline towards a more scientific position at an incipient microbial time.(AU)

HEALTH CARE IN SLAVONIAN PROVINCE DURING THE 19th CENTURY / Zdravstvena skrb u slavonskom Provincijalu tijekom 19. stoljeca

Due to its proximity to the Ottoman Empire, Slavonia was constantly exposed to the threat of invasion by numerous infectious and non-infectious diseases. An additional aggravating circumstance was the poor living and hygienic conditions in Slavonia, poverty, droughts, and floods. After the withdrawal of the Ottomans at the end of the 17th century, medical care was provided only by a few barbers and 'ranarniks' (i.e., feldshers) who remained in the Slavonian province. Due to the poor medical care, in 1770, the Empress and Queen Maria Theresa issued the General Health Law, which applied to the entire Habsburg Monarchy, including Slavonia. Among other things, it provided for the introduction of formal training for health personnel, ultimately leading to a better quality medical workforce. At the same time, charlatans were increasingly prohibited from working. The shortage of trained physicians, dentists, midwives, pharmacists, and veterinarians was addressed through various measures to promote their education and training. After obtaining their diplomas, these professionals were employed in hospitals, old people's homes, nursing homes, homes for people with disabilities, and other healthcare institutions where the inhabitants of the Slavonian province received medical care.

Rosa Bonheur the Amazon? Equestrianism, female masculinity, and The Horse Fair (1852-1855).

In 1853, Rosa Bonheur first exhibited what would become her most widely celebrated work: The Horse Fair. Although the work's modern setting and animal-focused subject matter do not obviously characterize it as an instance of classical reception, the artist claimed that it was inspired by the Parthenon frieze. A significant amount of feminist and queer scholarship has been dedicated to Rosa Bonheur's life, career, and art practices, all of which reveal the complex ways in which the artist negotiated the gender norms of 19th-century France. These ranged from her decision never to marry, instead living in households with two women, to her officially sanctioned practice of cross-dressing when conducting art studies in public. In view of all these things, one of the most remarkable elements of The Horse Fair is the very probable inclusion of the artist's self-portrait, clad in masculine clothing and riding with legs astride her mount. Taking seriously Bonheur's Parthenonian quotation, how should her self-portrait within the male-dominated arena of the horse market be understood? The author argues that, by classical analogy, Bonheur may be regarded as a gender-bending Amazon of a sort that was radically distinct from the scores of so-called "amazones" promenading about Paris. A comparative consideration of contemporary visualizations of the Amazonian rider trope suggests that Bonheur appropriates and, as it were, refashions this modish, gendered imagery to make a bold statement of women's equality with men.

The Development of Non-affective Psychotic Syndromes in the 19th Century: LeGrand du Saulle and His 1871 Monograph "Le Délire De Persécutions" (Persecutory Delusions).

While the origins of two of Kraepelin's three subtypes of dementia praecox (DP), catatonic and hebephrenic, are well understood, no similar clear narrative exists for his concepts of paranoia and paranoid DP, which require a consideration of both German and French sources. An important milestone in the French literature is the massive 524 page monograph entitled "Le Délire Des Persécutions" published in 1871 by Henri Legrand du Saulle which contained extensive, clinically detailed descriptions of a wide range of cases with prominent, organized persecutory delusions. Many of his cases reported auditory hallucinations (AH), and some bizarre, Schneiderian delusions. The delusional content could evolve to include prominent somatic and/or grandiose themes. Using a symptomatic diagnostic framework, Legrand du Saulle proposed that this syndrome represented an independent "species" of mental illness. He sought to give a voice to the affected individuals, including a chapter devoted entirely to their writings. He described several clinically fascinating features of such patients including how often they moved residence to unsuccessfully flee their persecutors and how delusional beliefs could be communicated to spouses and relatives. Unlike Kraepelin, he was little interested in their course of illness or rates of deterioration, except to note that recoveries occurred in 20% of cases. The clinical richness of this work substantially exceeded that in the contemporaneous German literature. Most of the cases described by du Saulle would fit easily into the two major non-affective delusional syndromes articulated 28 years later in Kraepelin's famous 6th edition of his textbook: paranoia and paranoid DP.

[How studies on curare contributed to the development of neurophysiological research in Brazil]. / Importance des études transnationales sur le curare dans le développement de la recherche en neurophysiologie au Brésil.

Curare is a poison obtained from different species of plants in South America, which was used in arrows by the natives. Its lethal paralyzing potential and mechanism of action began to be explored in the 19th century. In this article, we highlight the research on this poison and the fruitful exchanges between the Brazilian Emperor Dom Pedro II and the researchers João Baptista de Lacerda, Louis Couty and Alfred Vulpian who contributed to the development of experimental neurophysiology in Brazil. Vulpian found that curare does not affect the nerve itself, but acts between the nerves and the muscle, through a "ligand substance" - this Vulpian's pioneering concept is often wrongly attributed to Claude Bernard. These prestigious scientists contributed to the transnational circulation of knowledge that later yielded in the preparation of curare purified extract used for convulsive therapy and anesthesia.

Title: Importance des études transnationales sur le curare dans le développement de la recherche en neurophysiologie au Brésil. Abstract: Le curare, un poison obtenu à partir de différentes espèces de plantes en Amérique du Sud, était utilisé sur les flèches par les autochtones. Son potentiel paralysant mortel et son mécanisme d'action ont commencé à être explorés par les chercheurs au XIXe siècle. Dans cet article, nous rappelons l'historique des recherches sur ce poison et les échanges entre l'empereur brésilien Dom Pedro II et les chercheurs João Baptista de Lacerda, Louis Couty et Alfred Vulpian qui ont beaucoup contribué au développement scientifique brésilien. Vulpian a découvert que le curare n'affecte pas le nerf lui-même, mais agit entre celui-ci et le muscle, par l'intermédiaire d'une « substance de liaison ¼ ­ ce concept développé par Vulpian est souvent attribué à tort à Claude Bernard. Les travaux pionniers de ces savants prestigieux ont ultérieurement abouti à la préparation d'extrait purifié de curare, d'intérêt thérapeutique majeur pour le traitement de convulsions et pour l'anesthésie.

The palaeopathology of industry, a perspective from Britain.

OBJECTIVES: This article considers the position of palaeopathology of ca. 1750AD onward within the subdiscipline of Industrial Archaeology, and reflects upon the relationship between skeletal palaeopathology and textual sources on disease prevalences. METHODS: It draws upon the author's experience in engaging with threat-led archaeology. It synthesises key elements of palaeopathological literature, emphasising contributions to the IJPP VSI 'Changes in Health with the Rise of Industry', and also the broader literature regarding Industrial Archaeology. RESULTS: Industrial Archaeology has seen a recent refocus to include not only a concentration upon technological aspects of industry but also increased emphasis the social context of industrialisation. This movement toward a placement of people as well as machines centre stage has resulted in an environment conducive for paleopathology to make a greater impact upon studies of the period. CONCLUSIONS: Palaeopathologists need to ensure that their biocultural work is orientated toward research goals of broader relevance if the impact of their work is to be maximised. We cannot directly align prevalence data generated from skeletal and and written sources; roles played by these two sources of evidence will depend, inter alia, upon the problems being investigated. SIGNIFICANCE: The success of 'Industrial Palaeopathology' will be measured by the extent to which human remains studies move toward centre stage within the broader discipline of Industrial Archaeology. LIMITATIONS: Multiple perspectives on disciplinary development are possible. Academic traditions, relationships between university- and threat led-sectors, and the opportunities and challenges engendered by working with human remains, differ in different countries.

Heridas de guerra en el Perú del siglo XIX: la lesión ocular de Andrés Avelino Cáceres / War wounds in nineteenth century Peru: the eye injury of Andrés Avelino Cáceres

RESUMEN Andrés Avelino Cáceres (1836-1923) fue un destacado político y militar peruano que ocupó la presidencia en dos periodos y lideró al ejército peruano durante la Guerra del Pacífico, por lo que es considerado un héroe nacional. Al inicio de su carrera militar, durante el sitio a la ciudad de Arequipa en 1858, sufrió una lesión ocular cuya cicatriz se observa en las fotografías que se le tomaron posteriormente a lo largo de su vida, lo que hizo que fuera apodado "El Tuerto" aunque al parecer su agudeza visual estuvo indemne. En este trabajo describiremos las circunstancias en las que se produjo la lesión oftálmica de Andrés Avelino Cáceres, las secuelas que pudo tener este traumatismo oftálmico y el tratamiento médico que pudo haber recibido, en base al propio relato del héroe y a las imágenes suyas que se conservan.

ABSTRACT Andrés Avelino Cáceres (1836-1923) was a prominent Peruvian politician and military man who held the presidency for two terms and led the Peruvian army during the Pacific War, for which he is considered a national hero. At the beginning of his military career, during the siege of the city of Arequipa in 1856, he suffered an eye injury whose scar can be seen in the photographs that were taken of him later throughout his life, which led to him being nicknamed "El Tuerto". We will describe the circumstances in which the ophthalmic injury of Andrés Avelino Cáceres occurred, the consequences that this ophthalmic trauma could have had and the treatment he could have received, based on the hero's own story and the images of him that are preserved.

FOLK MEDICINE FOR THE TREATMENT OF EYE DISEASES IN DALMATIA IN THE 19TH CENTURY / NARODNA MEDICINA U LIJECENJU OCNIH BOLESTI U DALMACIJI U 19. STOLJECU

Folk medicine is a traditional medical practice in the general population, especially in rural areas. Traditional medicine methods used herbal remedies as well as human and animal substances and minerals. The most commonly used drugs in the treatment of eye diseases were drugs of plant origin like chamomile, eyebright and greater celandine, then drugs of human and animal origin like breast milk, saliva, honey, animal bile, and copper sulfate from mineral origin. There is little information in the literature discussing the folk treatment of ocular diseases. The aim of this paper is to show how ocular diseases were treated in folk medicine in Dalmatia during the 19th century. Efforts were also made to explain the reasons for such empirical treatment that was passed from generation to generation. At the end of the 19th, and especially at the beginning of the 20th century, modern and scientific ophthalmology developed in Dalmatia, but also throughout Croatia, first in large cities. So gradually, folk medicine in the treatment of eye diseases became more and more forgotten.

Formulas of oath and licensing of pharmacists during the Napoleonic Italian Republic and the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy / Fórmulas de juramento y habilitación de los farmacéuticos durante la República Italiana Napoleónica y el Reino de Italia Napoleónico

This study presents selected unpublished documents that concern the completion of the pharmacy degree programme and its corresponding qualifying exam, in accordance with the reforms of the Napoleonic Italian Republic (1802-1805) and the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy (1805-1814). The Law on Public Education of 4 September 1802 and the Study and Discipline Plans for National Universities of 1803 stated that pharmacists had to study for three years at one of the national universities in order to obtain an academic degree. These reforms also declared that, after graduating, a further exam was required before pharmacists could freely exercise their profession.The first remarkable document is the one containing the oath taken by pharmacy students upon obtaining their academic degree. The oath is very detailed and accurately describes the expectations that the new Italian Government placed on pharmacists, as well as all the duties that they had to fulfil.Among the documents of the Ufficio Centrale Medico, Chirurgico, Farmaceutico (Central Medical, Surgical and Pharmaceutical Office) – the body that at the time was responsible for qualifying health professionals – there are the Office regulations, with all the rules concerning the pharmacists’ qualifying exam and their proclamation. There is also the oath formula that pharmacists read aloud at the end of their final exam. This oath was more concise than the oath taken at the end of university studies and, in this case, it was the same as the one taken by physicians and surgeons. What is also remarkable in these documents is the special qualification that was granted to those most deserving pharmacists who passed the exam with excellent marks: the possibility of producing and selling large quantities of chemical-pharmaceutical compounds to other pharmacists.(AU)

Este estudio presenta una selección de documentos inéditos relativos a la obtención del grado académico de farmacia y su correspondiente examen de habilitación, de acuerdo con las reformas de la República Italiana Napoleónica (1802-1805) y del Reino Napoleónico de Italia (1805-1814). La Ley de Instrucción Pública de 4 de septiembre de 1802 y los Planes de Estudio y Disciplina de las Universidades Nacionales de 1803 establecían que los farmacéuticos debían estudiar tres años en una de las universidades nacionales para obtener un título académico. Estas reformas también declaraban que, después de graduarse, se requería otro examen antes de que los farmacéuticos pudieran ejercer libremente su profesión.El primer documento destacable es el que contiene el juramento prestado por los estudiantes de farmacia al obtener su título académico. El juramento es muy detallado y describe con precisión las expectativas que el nuevo Gobierno italiano depositaba en los farmacéuticos, así como todas las obligaciones que debían cumplir.Entre los documentos del Ufficio Centrale Medico, Chirurgico, Farmaceutico (Oficina Central Médica, Quirúrgica y Farmacéutica), organismo que en aquella época se encargaba de habilitar a los profesionales sanitarios, se encuentra el reglamento del Ufficio, con todas las normas relativas al examen de habilitación de los farmacéuticos y su proclamación. También está la fórmula del juramento que los farmacéuticos leen al final de su examen final. Este juramento era más conciso que el que se prestaba al final de los estudios universitarios y, en este caso, era el mismo que el de los médicos y cirujanos. Lo que también llama la atención en estos documentos es la cualificación especial que se concedía a los farmacéuticos más meritorios que aprobaban el examen con excelentes notas: la posibilidad de producir y vender grandes cantidades de compuestos químico-farmacéuticos a otros farmacéuticos.(AU)

Theodor Kocher (1841-1917) and his outstanding contributions to surgery

Theodor Kocher (1841-1917), an exceptional Swiss surgeon who described a technique for the safe removal of enlarged thyroid unraveled the true function of this endocrine gland but also made significant contributions to many other fields of surgery. Kocher was the first surgeon awarded the Nobel prize in Physiology and Medicine in 1909 for his work on the physiology, pathology, and surgery of the thyroid gland. He was professor and clinical director at Insel Hospital during 45 years. Kocher created the prominent Surgeon's School in Bern. He was the first president of the International Society of Surgery in 1903 and the founding president of the Swiss Society of Surgery in 1913.

Theodor Kocher (1841-1917), excepcional cirujano suizo que describió una técnica para la extirpación segura del agrandamiento del tiroides y desentrañó la verdadera función de esta glándula endocrina, pero también hizo importantes aportaciones a muchos otros campos de la cirugía. Kocher fue el primer cirujano galardonado con el premio Nobel de Fisiología y Medicina en 1909 por sus trabajos sobre la fisiología, patología y cirugía de la glándula tiroides. Fue profesor y director clínico del Hospital Insel durante 45 años. Kocher creó la destacada Escuela de Cirujanos de Berna. Fue el primer presidente de la Sociedad Internacional de Cirugía en 1903 y el presidente fundador de la Sociedad Suiza de Cirugía en 1913.

Tracing the Roots of Dementia Praecox: Charles Lasègue and his 1852 Essay "Du Délire De Persécutions" (On Persecutory Delusions).

While the evolution of our modern concepts of mania and melancholia over the 19th century is relatively well-understood, no such clear narrative exists for the nonaffective psychotic syndromes that culminated in Kraepelin's concept of dementia praecox in 1899. These narratives were relatively distinct in Germany and France. An important milestone in the French literature is the 1852 essay by the alienist and polymath Charles Lasègue which contained the first detailed modern description of a persecutory delusional syndrome. Lasègue was a careful clinical observer who emphasized a symptomatic approach to psychiatric nosology and was less concerned with course and outcome. He details the evolution of persecutory delusions from increasing referential observations of real events, to the resulting anxious confusion and then the emergence of explanatory delusional beliefs. Once formed, these beliefs, he notes, are relatively impervious to correction. Lasègue was unusual for his time in emphasizing a "first-person perspective" on psychotic experiences, and quotes from his patients in his case history, of which he presents 15. Of these, 12 had auditory hallucinations and 4 passivity phenomena. While conceptualized differently than mid-19th century pre-Kraepelinian German writing on delusional syndromes, and unique on its focus on persecutory delusions, Lasègue's important essay shared a common view on the key features of a broad nonaffective delusional-hallucinatory syndrome. It was this syndrome that Kraepelin, over multiple drafts in the first 6 editions of his textbook from 1883 to 1899, was to divide into his mature concepts of paranoia and the paranoid subtype of dementia praecox.

El laboratorio de los Anales. Peritaje, enseñanza, edición y comercio en el laboratorio de análisis químico de la calle Carretas, Madrid, 1867-1880 / The anales laboratory. Expertise, teaching, publishing and trade in the laboratory of chemical analysis at carretas street, madrid, 1867-1880

El laboratorio de análisis químico abierto, entre 1867 y 1880, en la calle Carretas de Madrid, es estudiado aquí en el contexto de las disputas corporativas por el control de un nuevo espacio de actividad académica y profesional surgido en la segunda mitad del siglo XIX en torno a la determinación de composición química de alimentos, bebidas y productos de la industria, la agricultura y el comercio. Se analiza la ubicación y el diseño de los espacios, la interacción entre las diferentes actividades desarrolladas dentro y fuera del laboratorio, así como las razones y los intereses que atrajeron a los diferentes públicos que hicieron uso de sus servicios. El objetivo es comprender mejor el significado y el funcionamiento de un espacio híbrido en el que actividades diversas y dispersas como el análisis químico, la producción industrial, la enseñanza, la divulgación y la edición interactuaron de forma sinérgica para sustentar la autoridad y la credibilidad que sus promotores necesitaban para conquistar la confianza de quienes estuvieron dispuestos a pagar por sus productos, en su mayoría escritos.(AU)

The laboratory of chemical analysis operating, between 1867 and 1880, at Carretas street in Madrid is studied here in the context of professional disputes over the control of news spaces for academic and professional activities emerging in the second half of the 19th Century on chemical analyses of food beverages and industrial, trade and agriculture products. The paper examines the location and design of the laboratory, the interaction between the different activities carried out inside and outside the lab, and the reasons and interests that attracted different publics requesting a variety of services. The aim is to understand better the meaning and operation of a hybrid space with a large range of activities such as chemical analysis, industrial production, teaching, and popularization interacting synergistically. They were employed by the promoters of the lab to reinforce the authority and credibility required to gain the confidence of those who were willing to pay for their products.(AU)

Attempted suicide in older people in New South Wales, Australia, 1870-1908.

This study examines attempted suicide in older people between 1870 and 1908 in (NSW), Australia. Statistical Registers of NSW indicate persons aged 60+ had disproportionately high rates of apprehension (10.9%) and conviction (13.0%) for attempted suicide. Newspaper reports of 110 suicide attempts in older people indicate that alcohol misuse, poor health, depression, being tired of living, financial problems, relationship difficulties, loss events and insanity were the main issues. Most were treated compassionately with medical care and support, albeit sometimes in a gaol setting. Medical casebooks of persons aged 60+ years with suicide attempts (n = 49) or suicidal ideation (n = 43) admitted to hospitals for the insane indicated that over 75% were psychotic and 50% had melancholia.

Language as a Specimen.

Language was never studied by linguists (or philologists) alone. The greater part of the languages of the world was first known in the West through the reports of missionaries, explorers, and colonial administrators, and what they documented reflected their specific interests. Missionaries wrote catechisms, primers, dictionaries, and Bible translations (especially Lord's Prayers); for explorers and administrators, language was one aspect among many to cover in their accounts of faraway regions. Peoples were identified by their language; toponyms served for geographic description; names of plants and animals were gathered together with specimens and images of plants and animals. In this context, linguistic materials were equally described as "specimens." This article investigates the various ways in which language material was used and conceived of as a specimen, and the global trajectories of these "specimens." Especially the role of naturalist explorers deserves closer attention in this regard. What they did, throughout the late 18th and 19th century, was gathering language material as one kind of specimen among others, Forster in the Pacific, Humboldt, Martius, and d'Orbigny in South America, and Peters in Mozambique. Two large-scale expeditions from the mid-19th century stand out as examples: the U.S. Exploring Expedition (1838-1842), whose collections later filled the Smithsonian Institution, and the Austrian-Hungarian Novara expedition (1857-1859).

Emil Kraepelin as a historian of psychiatry - one hundred years on.

This article reviews Emil Kraepelin's address 'Hundert Jahre Psychiatrie', at the opening of the Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Psychiatrie in 1917, and published as an essay in 1918. Kraepelin's publication represents a part of his late work: his commitment as a historian of psychiatry. He composed a classic narrative of psychiatric progress, which includes an outlook on desirable future developments in therapy and prevention. The present article considers the essay's socio-historical context as well as its structure and content. The focus lies on its time of origin around the end of World War I, its sources in relation to the state of the art of historiography at that time and the history of its reception, including the English-language edition of 1962.

Krafft-Ebing's 1874 monograph "Melancholia: A Clinical Study".

BACKGROUND: In 1874, the German neuropsychiatrist Richard von Krafft-Ebing (RKE) published one of the most influential monographs on melancholia in the latter half of the 19th century entitled "Melancholia: A Clinical Study." This monograph has not been translated into English nor extensively discussed in the modern Anglophonic literature. RESULTS: The monograph has three chapters describing, respectively, Melancholia without Delusions, Melancholia with precordial anxiety and Psychotic Melancholia. The last chapter includes a discussion of retarded and agitated forms of melancholia. The text combines detailed vivid clinical descriptions with etiologic theories involving mental, brain and autonomic processes. RKE supports the psychalgic theory of melancholia in which, analogous to Tic Douloureux causing terrible pain to a normal touch, brain ganglia became hypersensitive and create a sustained mental pain in response to normal intrapsychic or environmental stimuli. RKE was especially interested in the development of delusions in melancholia, for which he proposed several distinct pathways. His clinical description of melancholia, including 8 of 9 DSM-5 A criteria for major depression, is quite modern. CONCLUSIONS: This essay, accompanied by an on-line complete English translation of RKE's essay, provides the opportunity for Anglophonic clinicians, students, and scholars to access this historically important essay on Melancholia. The psychophysiological framework of psychalgia adopted by RKE could explained how normal social and introspective experiences would, in melancholic patients, be interpreted in a distorted manner, reinforcing themes of inadequacy, failure, and worthlessness, thereby producing a sustained mood state of intense mental pain of melancholia or psychalgia.

Dr James Copland (1791-1870) and his Dictionary of Practical Medicine.

Dr James Copland (1791-1870) was born in the Orkney Islands and studied medicine at Edinburgh where he graduated in 1815. The following year was spent in Paris to acquire knowledge of the latest developments in pathology and he then travelled for a year along the coast of West Africa gaining practical experience of treating tropical diseases. After establishing his medical practice in London, which eventually became extremely successful, he contributed to medical journals and also became editor of the London Medical Repository from 1822 to 1825. His greatest work was The Dictionary of Practical Medicine written entirely by himself which was completed between 1832 and 1858. More than 10,000 copies of the dictionary were sold and its author became world famous during his lifetime. In 1833, Copland was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and from 1837 onwards he played a prominent role in the proceedings of The Royal College of Physicians. This article shows how his extensive professional and literary work was combined with an unusual private life.

Unearthing a provincial medical school and its students - A history of the 1834 'School of Practical Medicine and Surgery' at the Sussex County Hospital, Brighton, England.

The 19th century was a period of rapid change in English medical education. Little is known about the important contribution of smaller, hospital-based, provincial medical schools which sprang up to provide important practical training opportunities for students, typically as a foundation for further training and examination in London. One such example is the 1834 Brighton 'School of Practical Medicine and Surgery', which was based at the Sussex County Hospital and recognised by the Royal College of Surgeons and Worshipful Society of Apothecaries. Unlike many other 19th century medical schools, the history of the Brighton school is largely undocumented. Although it remained dependent upon London through the 'College and Hall' examination system, this article shows that the school's pragmatic and adaptive educational approach allowed it to play an important role in educating future doctors in Brighton from 1834 into at least the early 20th century.