Molecular genetic identification of Wuzhishan ant chicken, a newly discovered resource in China.

Introduction: The Wuzhishan ant (MY) chicken exhibits significant differences from other chicken breeds. However, the molecular genetic relationship between the MY breed and other chicken breeds has not been assessed. Methods: Whole-genome resequencing was used to compare genetic diversity, nucleotide diversity, the fixation index, the linkage disequilibrium coefficient, and phylogenetic tree relationships between the MY breed and the Wenchang (WC), Danzhou (DZ), Bawangling (BW), and Longsheng Feng (LF) breeds. Results: A total of 21,586,378 singlenucleotide polymorphisms and 4,253,341 insertions/deletions were screened out among the five breeds. The MY breed had the second highest genomic genetic diversity and nucleotide diversity and the lowest LD coefficient among the five breeds. Moreover, the phylogenetic tree analysis showed that individual birds of each breed clustered together with those of their respective breeds. Discussion: Our data indicated that the MY breed is distinct from the other breeds and can be considered a new genetic resource.

Effect of body mass index on progesterone level on trigger day in gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist cycles.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effect of body mass index (BMI) on progesterone (P) level on trigger day in gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist (GnRH-ant) cycles. METHODS: This study was a retrospective cohort study. From October 2017 to April 2022, 412 in-vitro fertilization (IVF)/intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) patients who were treated with GnRH-ant protocol for controlled ovarian hyperstimulation (COH) in the reproductive center of our hospital were selected as the research objects. Patients were divided into three groups according to BMI level: normal weight group (n = 230):18.5 kg/m2≤BMI < 24 kg/m2; overweight group (n = 122): 24 kg/m2≤BMI < 28 kg/m2; Obesity group (n = 60): BMI ≥ 28 kg/m2. Variables with p < .10 in univariate analysis (BMI, basal FSH, basal P, FSH days, Gn starting dose and E2 level on trigger day) and variables that may affect P level on trigger day (infertility factors, basal LH, total FSH, HMG days and total HMG) were included in the multivariate logistic regression model to analyze the effect of BMI on P level on trigger day of GnRH-ant protocol. RESULTS: After adjustment for confounding factors, compared with that in normal weight patients, the risk of serum P elevation on trigger day was significantly lower in overweight and obese patients (OR = 0.434 and 0.199, respectively, p < .05). CONCLUSION: The risk of P elevation on trigger day in GnRH-ant cycles decreased with the increase of BMI, and BMI could be used as one of the predictors of P level on trigger day in GnRH-ant cycles.

A novel clustered-based detection method for shilling attack in private environments.

The topic of privacy-preserving collaborative filtering is gaining more and more attention. Nevertheless, privacy-preserving collaborative filtering techniques are vulnerable to shilling or profile injection assaults. Hence, it is crucial to identify counterfeit profiles in order to achieve total success. Various techniques have been devised to identify and prevent intrusion patterns from infiltrating the system. Nevertheless, these strategies are specifically designed for collaborative filtering algorithms that do not prioritize privacy. There is a scarcity of research on identifying shilling attacks in recommender systems that prioritize privacy. This work presents a novel technique for identifying shilling assaults in privacy-preserving collaborative filtering systems. We employ an ant colony clustering detection method to effectively identify and eliminate fake profiles that are created by six widely recognized shilling attacks on compromised data. The objective of the study is to categorize the fraudulent profiles into a specific cluster and separate this cluster from the system. Empirical experiments are conducted with actual data. The empirical findings demonstrate that the strategy derived from the study effectively eliminates fraudulent profiles in privacy-preserving collaborative filtering.

Evolutionary déjà vu? A case of convergent evolution in an ant-plant association.

Obligatory ant-plant symbioses often appear to be single evolutionary shifts within particular ant lineages; however, convergence can be revealed once natural history observations are complemented with molecular phylogenetics. Here, we describe a remarkable example of convergent evolution in an ant-plant symbiotic system. Exclusively arboreal, Myrmelachista species can be generalized opportunists nesting in several plant species or obligately symbiotic, live-stem nesters of a narrow set of plant species. Instances of specialization within Myrmelachista are known from northern South America and throughout Middle America. In Middle America, a diverse radiation of specialists occupies understory treelets of lowland rainforests. The morphological and behavioural uniformity of specialists suggests that they form a monophyletic assemblage, diversifying after a single origin of specialization. Using ultraconserved element phylogenomics and ancestral state reconstructions, we show that shifts from opportunistic to obligately symbiotic evolved independently in South and Middle America. Furthermore, our analyses support a remarkable case of convergence within the Middle American radiation, with two independently evolved specialist clades, arising nearly simultaneously from putative opportunistic ancestors during the late Pliocene. This repeated evolution of a complex phenotype suggests similar mechanisms behind trait shifts from opportunists to specialists, generating further questions about the selective forces driving specialization.

Distribution of brood of the acorn ant Temnothorax crassispinus in artificial nests after forced migration.

Nest sites are important for social insects, as they provide refuge against enemies and ensure optimal conditions for the brood development. In large nests, the different chambers can be used for different reasons; for example, for food storage or as a brood chamber. Acorn ants from the genus Temnothorax dwell in small cavities in acorns and wood; however, even such small chambers can have a high degree of spatial heterogeneity. During this study, the distribution of brood items of the acorn ant Temnothorax crassispinus inside artificial nest cavities composed of three chambers in a linear system was analysed. 29 ant colonies were photographed 13 times during a period of approximately one month: during three consecutive days, and after forced migrations. I found that the distribution of the brood inside the nest cavity was similar during the consecutive days; however, after the forced migration, the distribution typically changed. Almost all the brood items were kept farther from the entrance. Keeping the brood farther from the entrance could be explained as a safer option.

A systematic literature review on meta-heuristic based feature selection techniques for text classification.

Feature selection (FS) is a critical step in many data science-based applications, especially in text classification, as it includes selecting relevant and important features from an original feature set. This process can improve learning accuracy, streamline learning duration, and simplify outcomes. In text classification, there are often many excessive and unrelated features that impact performance of the applied classifiers, and various techniques have been suggested to tackle this problem, categorized as traditional techniques and meta-heuristic (MH) techniques. In order to discover the optimal subset of features, FS processes require a search strategy, and MH techniques use various strategies to strike a balance between exploration and exploitation. The goal of this research article is to systematically analyze the MH techniques used for FS between 2015 and 2022, focusing on 108 primary studies from three different databases such as Scopus, Science Direct, and Google Scholar to identify the techniques used, as well as their strengths and weaknesses. The findings indicate that MH techniques are efficient and outperform traditional techniques, with the potential for further exploration of MH techniques such as Ringed Seal Search (RSS) to improve FS in several applications.

Development of a lexicon for the sensory description of edible insects commercially available in Australia.

Sensory lexicons provide an important tool for describing the sensory properties of emerging, unfamiliar foods such as edible insects. This study sought to establish and validate a sensory lexicon for the description and differentiation of edible insects commercially available in Australia and prepared using common preservation and cooking methods (freeze-drying, hot-air drying, roasting, sautéing and deep-frying). Five species were evaluated, including house crickets (Acheta domesticus), yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor), king mealworm larvae (Zophobas morio), tyrant ants (Iridomyrmex spp.) and green tree ants (Oecophylla smaragdina). Following generic descriptive sensory analysis methods, a trained panel (n=8) developed a sensory lexicon of 29 aroma and flavour descriptors, and 16 texture descriptors. Vocabulary were then categorised and ordered to generate a sensory wheel. Due to a lack of cross-over in sensory attributes between species, sub-categories of species-specific vocabulary were also generated for each insect. The lexicon enabled sensory profiling of commercially available edible insect samples which revealed large variation in aroma, flavour, and texture attributes due to both species and preparation method. This work provides a platform for development of a globally relevant edible insect sensory lexicon. International collaboration will enable expansion of the lexicon for use with other insect species and preparation methods, insect-derived ingredients (such as insect powder, defatted insect powder and textured insect protein) and in different cultural settings. As the industry grows, the applicability of vocabulary for differentiating within species and between competitive products should also be assessed.

Reassembling nursing in the digital age: An actor-network theory perspective.

This article explores the application of actor-network theory (ANT) to the nursing profession, proposing a novel perspective in understanding nursing in the context of modern digital healthcare. Traditional grand nursing theories, while foundational, often fail to encapsulate the dynamic and complex nature of nursing, particularly in an era of rapid technological advancements and shifting societal dynamics. ANT, with its emphasis on the relationships between human and nonhuman actors, offers a framework to understand nursing beyond traditional paradigms. This article makes two key arguments: first, that nursing can be viewed as a highly organised social assemblage, where both human (nurses, patients and policymakers) and nonhuman actors (technologies, medical equipment, institutional policies) play a crucial role, and second, that ANT can be used to enhance existing nursing theory to better understand the role of technology in nursing practice. The article considers how ANT can provide a more holistic and adaptable model for describing the nursing profession, particularly in an era where technology plays an integral role in healthcare delivery. It discusses the implications of viewing nursing through ANT, highlighting the need for nursing education and practice to adapt to the interconnected and technologically advanced nature of modern healthcare. The article also acknowledges the limitations of ANT, particularly its potential oversimplification of the complex ethical dimensions inherent in nursing and its focus on observable phenomena.

The long proboscis of the aphid Stomaphis yanonis (Aphididae Lachninae) is advantageous for avoiding predation by tending ants.

Whether in ant-aphid mutualism the ants exert evolutionary selection pressure on aphid morphology has not yet been fully tested. Here, we tested whether the long proboscises of Stomaphis yanonis (Aphididae Lachninae) aphids confer an advantage in preventing predation by the tending ants. Specifically, we tested the hypothesis that aphids with a shorter proboscis would excrete less honeydew, making them more likely to be preyed upon by ants. Our results showed that aphid individuals with a shorter proboscis took up less phloem sap and excreted less honeydew than individuals with a longer proboscis. In addition, among aphids with a similar body size, those with a shorter proboscis were more susceptible to predation by ants than those with a longer proboscis. These results suggest that predation by tending ants, by exerting selection pressure on aphid proboscis morphology, has caused the aphids to evolve longer proboscises.

Synthesis and Structural Characterization of Four Different Concentrations of Ant Nest (Myrmecodia pendens) Collagen Membranes with Potential for Medical Applications.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to synthesize and structurally characterize four ant nest membranes in four different concentrations and determine the best concentration that could potentially be used as an alternative material for the production of new collagen barrier membranes. Materials and Methods: Membranes were created by mixing ant nest extracts at various concentrations of 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, and 2%, as well as collagen, chitosan, and Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) using a film casting. A Universal Testing Machine (UTM) was used to evaluate mechanical properties including elastic modulus, tensile strength, maximum elongation, elongation at break, and maximum force. Water absorption was performed, FTIR was used for functional group identification, and morphology was examined using SEM. Additionally, EDS was used to identify the composition and distribution of elements in membranes. Statistical analysis was conducted using ANOVA (analysis of variance) and post hoc testing with a significance level of p <0.01 for quantitative data. Results: The results showed that the mechanical properties produced the following mean (standard deviation): elastic modulus 0.87 Mpa (0.11), tensile strength 16.32 N/mm2 (2.46), maximum elongation 4.96% (1.72), elongation at break 5.23% (1.87), and maximum force 22.50 N (5.06). The average water absorption capacity of all four membranes had a p-value <0.01. FTIR spectrum showed various peaks corresponding to functional groups, while SEM results indicated a homogeneous mixture. EDS analysis confirmed that the addition of ant plant extract at 0.5%, 1%, and 1.5% resulted in the presence of elements C, O, and Ca. Meanwhile, membranes prepared with 2% concentration had a different composition, namely C, O, Ca, and Na. Conclusion: Increasing the concentration of ant nest affects the values of the membrane's mechanical properties parameters, including the elastic modulus (0.87 Mpa), tensile strength (16.32 N/mm2), maximum elongation (4.96%), elongation at break (5.23%), and maximum force (22.50 N). The average membrane absorption of water (p value <0.01) was also affected. SEM images showed homogeneous mixing, and membrane EDS results consisted of C, O, and Ca composition. However, there was no effect on FTIR functional groups. The anthill membrane with a 1% concentration has the potential to serve as an alternative membrane in guided tissue regeneration.

Long-term evaluation of anterior thalamic deep brain stimulation for epilepsy in the European MORE registry.

OBJECTIVE: Short-term outcomes of deep brain stimulation of the anterior nucleus of the thalamus (ANT-DBS) were reported for people with drug-resistant focal epilepsy (PwE). Because long-term data are still scarce, the Medtronic Registry for Epilepsy (MORE) evaluated clinical routine application of ANT-DBS. METHODS: In this multicenter registry, PwE with ANT-DBS were followed up for safety, efficacy, and battery longevity. Follow-up ended after 5 years or upon study closure. Clinical characteristics and stimulation settings were compared between PwE with no benefit, improvers, and responders, that is, PwE with average monthly seizure frequency reduction rates of ≥50%. RESULTS: Of 170 eligible PwE, 104, 62, and 49 completed the 3-, 4-, and 5-year follow-up, respectively. Most discontinuations (68%) were due to planned study closure as follow-up beyond 2 years was optional. The 5-year follow-up cohort had a median seizure frequency reduction from 16 per month at baseline to 7.9 per month at 5-year follow-up (p < .001), with most-pronounced effects on focal-to-bilateral tonic-clonic seizures (n = 15, 77% reduction, p = .008). At last follow-up (median 3.5 years), 41% (69/170) of PwE were responders. Unifocal epilepsy (p = .035) and a negative history of epilepsy surgery (p = .002) were associated with larger average monthly seizure frequency reductions. Stimulation settings did not differ between response groups. In 179 implanted PwE, DBS-related adverse events (AEs, n = 225) and serious AEs (n = 75) included deterioration in epilepsy or seizure frequency/severity/type (33; 14 serious), memory/cognitive impairment (29; 3 serious), and depression (13; 4 serious). Five deaths occurred (none were ANT-DBS related). Most AEs (76.3%) manifested within the first 2 years after implantation. Activa PC depletion (n = 37) occurred on average after 45 months. SIGNIFICANCE: MORE provides further evidence for the long-term application of ANT-DBS in clinical routine practice. Although clinical benefits increased over time, side effects occurred mainly during the first 2 years. Identified outcome modifiers can help inform PwE selection and management.

Pheromone representation in the ant antennal lobe changes with age.

While the neural basis of age-related decline has been extensively studied,1,2,3 less is known about changes in neural function during the pre-senescent stages of adulthood. Adult neural plasticity is likely a key factor in social insect age polyethism, where individuals perform different tasks as they age and divide labor in an age-dependent manner.4,5,6,7,8,9 Primarily, workers transition from nursing to foraging tasks,5,10 become more aggressive, and more readily display alarm behavior11,12,13,14,15,16 as they get older. While it is unknown how these behavioral dynamics are neurally regulated, they could partially be generated by altered salience of behaviorally relevant stimuli.4,6,7 Here, we investigated how odor coding in the antennal lobe (AL) changes with age in the context of alarm pheromone communication in the clonal raider ant (Ooceraea biroi).17 Similar to other social insects,11,12,16 older ants responded more rapidly to alarm pheromones, the chemical signals for danger. Using whole-AL calcium imaging,18 we then mapped odor representations for five general odorants and two alarm pheromones in young and old ants. Alarm pheromones were represented sparsely at all ages. However, alarm pheromone responses within individual glomeruli changed with age, either increasing or decreasing. Only two glomeruli became sensitized to alarm pheromones with age, while at the same time becoming desensitized to general odorants. Our results suggest that the heightened response to alarm pheromones in older ants occurs via increased sensitivity in these two core glomeruli, illustrating the importance of sensory modulation in social insect division of labor and age-associated behavioral plasticity.

Liver mitochondrial coupling efficiency and its relationship to oxidative capacity and adenine nucleotide translocase content: A comparative study among crocodiles, birds and mammals.

The primary objective of this study was to assess whether adenine nucleotide translocase (ANT) content could be associated with phylogenetic disparities in mitochondrial coupling efficiency, within liver mitochondria obtained from rats, crocodiles, and ducklings. Our measurements included mitochondrial membrane conductance, ANT content, and oxidative phosphorylation fluxes at various steady-state rates. We observed significant variations in liver mitochondrial coupling efficiency across the three species. These variations correlated with interspecific differences in mitochondrial oxidative capacity and, to a lesser extent, the ANT content of liver mitochondria. These findings expand upon previous research by highlighting the pivotal role of oxidative capacity and ANT in modulating mitochondrial efficiency on an interspecific scale.

Mechanistic modeling of alarm signaling in seed-harvester ants.

Ant colonies demonstrate a finely tuned alarm response to potential threats, offering a uniquely manageable empirical setting for exploring adaptive information diffusion within groups. To effectively address potential dangers, a social group must swiftly communicate the threat throughout the collective while conserving energy in the event that the threat is unfounded. Through a combination of modeling, simulation, and empirical observations of alarm spread and damping patterns, we identified the behavioral rules governing this adaptive response. Experimental trials involving alarmed ant workers (Pogonomyrmex californicus) released into a tranquil group of nestmates revealed a consistent pattern of rapid alarm propagation followed by a comparatively extended decay period [1]. The experiments in [1] showed that individual ants exhibiting alarm behavior increased their movement speed, with variations in response to alarm stimuli, particularly during the peak of the reaction. We used the data in [1] to investigate whether these observed characteristics alone could account for the swift mobility increase and gradual decay of alarm excitement. Our self-propelled particle model incorporated a switch-like mechanism for ants' response to alarm signals and individual variations in the intensity of speed increased after encountering these signals. This study aligned with the established hypothesis that individual ants possess cognitive abilities to process and disseminate information, contributing to collective cognition within the colony (see [2] and the references therein). The elements examined in this research support this hypothesis by reproducing statistical features of the empirical speed distribution across various parameter values.

A Neoponera villosa (Fabricius, 1804) Worker Pupa with too Many Legs (Hymenoptera: Formicidae).

Several somatic and sexual anomalies such as gynandromorphism and other morphological malformations have been described in ants, but cases of supernumerary legs in natural populations are rare, with only six cases reported to date. Moreover, few cases of abnormalities have been reported for the Ponerinae subfamily, with only three cases of genetic chimeras and five teratological cases worldwide. We report here a new case of teratology in this subfamily, with a seven-legged worker pupa found in a Neoponera villosa colony nesting in an epiphytic tank bromeliad. This is the second case for Mexico of a morphological anomaly in a ponerine ant, but the first report of a teratological case in the subfamily for this country.

Differential Neuroanatomical, Neurochemical, and Behavioral Impacts of Early-Age Isolation in a Eusocial Insect.

INTRODUCTION: Social experience early in life appears to be necessary for the development of species-typical behavior. Although isolation during critical periods of maturation has been shown to impact behavior by altering gene expression and brain development in invertebrates and vertebrates, workers of some ant species appear resilient to social deprivation and other neurobiological challenges that occur during senescence or due to loss of sensory input. It is unclear if and to what degree neuroanatomy, neurochemistry, and behavior will show deficiencies if social experience in the early adult life of worker ants is compromised. METHODS: We reared newly eclosed adult workers of Camponotus floridanus under conditions of social isolation for 2-53 days, quantified brain compartment volumes, recorded biogenic amine levels in individual brains, and evaluated movement and behavioral performance to compare the neuroanatomy, neurochemistry, brood-care behavior, and foraging (predatory behavior) of isolated workers with that of workers experiencing natural social contact after adult eclosion. RESULTS: We found that the volume of the antennal lobe, which processes olfactory inputs, was significantly reduced in workers isolated for an average of 40 days, whereas the size of the mushroom bodies, centers of higher-order sensory processing, increased after eclosion and was not significantly different from controls. Titers of the neuromodulators serotonin, dopamine, and octopamine remained stable and were not significantly different in isolation treatments and controls. Brood care, predation, and overall movement were reduced in workers lacking social contact early in life. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that the behavioral development of isolated workers of C. floridanus is specifically impacted by a reduction in the size of the antennal lobe. Task performance and locomotor ability therefore appear to be sensitive to a loss of social contact through a reduction of olfactory processing ability rather than change in the size of the mushroom bodies, which serve important functions in learning and memory, or the central complex, which controls movement.

Establishment of RNAi-Mediated Pest Control Method for Red Imported Fire Ant, Solenopsis invicta.

RNAi plays a crucial role in insect gene function research and pest control field. Nonetheless, the variable efficiency of RNAi across diverse insects and off-target effects also limited its further application. In this study, we cloned six essential housekeeping genes from Solenopsis invicta and conducted RNAi experiments by orally administering dsRNA. Then, we found that mixing with liposomes significantly enhanced the RNAi efficiency by targeting for SiV-ATPaseE. Additionally, we observed a certain lethal effect of this dsRNA on queens by our established RNAi system. Furthermore, no strict sequence-related off-target effects were detected. Finally, the RNAi effect of large-scale bacteria expressing dsRNA was successfully confirmed for controlling S. invicta. In summary, this study established an RNAi system for S. invicta and provided a research template for the future development of nucleic acid drugs based on RNAi.

New approach methods to assess developmental and adult neurotoxicity for regulatory use: a PARC work package 5 project.

In the European regulatory context, rodent in vivo studies are the predominant source of neurotoxicity information. Although they form a cornerstone of neurotoxicological assessments, they are costly and the topic of ethical debate. While the public expects chemicals and products to be safe for the developing and mature nervous systems, considerable numbers of chemicals in commerce have not, or only to a limited extent, been assessed for their potential to cause neurotoxicity. As such, there is a societal push toward the replacement of animal models with in vitro or alternative methods. New approach methods (NAMs) can contribute to the regulatory knowledge base, increase chemical safety, and modernize chemical hazard and risk assessment. Provided they reach an acceptable level of regulatory relevance and reliability, NAMs may be considered as replacements for specific in vivo studies. The European Partnership for the Assessment of Risks from Chemicals (PARC) addresses challenges to the development and implementation of NAMs in chemical risk assessment. In collaboration with regulatory agencies, Project 5.2.1e (Neurotoxicity) aims to develop and evaluate NAMs for developmental neurotoxicity (DNT) and adult neurotoxicity (ANT) and to understand the applicability domain of specific NAMs for the detection of endocrine disruption and epigenetic perturbation. To speed up assay time and reduce costs, we identify early indicators of later-onset effects. Ultimately, we will assemble second-generation developmental neurotoxicity and first-generation adult neurotoxicity test batteries, both of which aim to provide regulatory hazard and risk assessors and industry stakeholders with robust, speedy, lower-cost, and informative next-generation hazard and risk assessment tools.

Nest excavators' learning walks in the Australian desert ant Melophorus bagoti.

The Australian red honey ant, Melophorus bagoti, stands out as the most thermophilic ant in Australia, engaging in all outdoor activities during the hottest periods of the day during summer months. This species of desert ants often navigates by means of path integration and learning landmark cues around the nest. In our study, we observed the outdoor activities of M. bagoti workers engaged in nest excavation, the maintenance of the nest structure, primarily by taking excess sand out of the nest. Before undertaking nest excavation, the ants conducted a single exploratory walk. Following their initial learning expedition, these ants then engaged in nest excavation activities. Consistent with previous findings on pre-foraging learning walks, after just one learning walk, the desert ants in our study demonstrated the ability to return home from locations 2 m away from the nest, although not from locations 4 m away. These findings indicate that even for activities like dumping excavated sand within a range of 5-10 cm outside the nest, these ants learn and utilize the visual landmark panorama around the nest.

Pollination Syndrome, Florivory, and Breeding System of Satyrium nepalense var. ciliatum (Orchidaceae) in Central Yunnan, China.

Research on Satyrium nepalense var. ciliatum (Lindl.) Hook. f. has primarily focused on populations in Northwestern Yunnan, with limited studies on pollination syndromes and insect behavior. In addition, it is geographically limited in its breeding system studies. Here, pollination syndromes, florivory, and breeding systems of S. nepalense var. ciliatum from Liangwang Mountain (Central Yunnan, China) were investigated through field work, microscope, scanning electron microscope (SEM), and parafin section. It was revealed that the pollination syndrome was possessing out-crossing, such as bright color, a developed rostellum, nectar glands in the spur, and food hairs at the lip base. The color and nectar attracted flower visitors, and florivory was observed. Some flower visitors pollinated their companion species. Ants were identified as floral visitors for the first time in Satyrium, although substantial pollination was not observed. Ants might be potential pollinators. S. nepalense var. ciliatum possessed a mixed breeding system, including selfing, out-crossing, and apomixis, with apomixis being predominant in nature. It is suggested that the pollination syndrome, florivory, and pollination competition would contribute to its mixed breeding systems, particularly leading to the occurrence of apomixis.