Flood-pulse disturbances as a threat for long-living Amazonian trees.

The long-lived tree species Eschweilera tenuifolia (O. Berg) Miers is characteristic of oligotrophic Amazonian black-water floodplain forests (igapó), seasonally inundated up to 10 months per year, often forming monodominant stands. We investigated E. tenuifolia' growth and mortality patterns in undisturbed (Jaú National Park - JNP) and disturbed igapós (Uatumã Sustainable Development Reserve - USDR, downstream of the Balbina hydroelectric dam). We analysed age-diameter relationships, basal area increment (BAI) through 5-cm diameter classes, growth changes and growth ratios preceding death, BAI clustering, BAI ratio, and dated the individual year of death (14 C). Growth and mortality patterns were then related to climatic or anthropogenic disturbances. Results were similar for both populations for estimated maximum ages (JNP, 466 yr; USDR, 498 yr, except for one USDR tree with an estimated age of 820 yr) and slightly different for mean diameter increment (JNP: 2.04 mm; USDR: 2.28 mm). Living trees from JNP showed altered growth post-1975 and sparse tree mortality occurred at various times, possibly induced by extreme hydroclimatic events. In contrast with the JNP, abrupt growth changes and massive mortality occurred in the USDR after the dam construction began (1983). Even more than 30 yr after dam construction, flood-pulse alteration continues to affect both growth and mortality of E. tenuifolia. Besides its vulnerability to anthropogenic disturbances, this species is also susceptible to long-lasting dry and wet periods induced by climatic events, the combination of both processes may cause its local and regional extinction.

Massive tree mortality from flood pulse disturbances in Amazonian floodplain forests: The collateral effects of hydropower production.

Large dams built for hydroelectric power generation alter the hydrology of rivers, attenuating the flood pulse downstream of the dam and impacting riparian and floodplain ecosystems. The present work mapped black-water floodplain forests (igapó) downstream of the Balbina Reservoir, which was created between 1983 and 1987 by damming the Uatumã River in the Central Amazon basin. We apply remote sensing methods to detect tree mortality resulting from hydrological changes, based on analysis of 56 ALOS/PALSAR synthetic aperture radar images acquired at different flood levels between 2006 and 2011. Our application of object-based image analysis (OBIA) methods and the random forests supervised classification algorithm yielded an overall accuracy of 87.2%. A total of 9800 km2 of igapó forests were mapped along the entire river downstream of the dam, but forest mortality was only observed below the first 49 km downstream, after the Morena rapids, along an 80-km river stretch. In total, 12% of the floodplain forest died within this stretch. We also detected that 29% of the remaining living igapó forest may be presently undergoing mortality. Furthermore, this large loss does not include the entirety of lost igapó forests downstream of the dam; areas which are now above current maximum flooding heights are no longer floodable and do not show on our mapping but will likely transition over time to upland forest species composition and dynamics, also characteristic of igapó loss. Our results show that floodplain forests are extremely sensitive to long-term downstream hydrological changes and disturbances resulting from the disruption of the natural flood pulse. Brazilian hydropower regulations should require that Amazon dam operations ensure the simulation of the natural flood-pulse, despite losses in energy production, to preserve the integrity of floodplain forest ecosystems and to mitigate impacts for the riverine populations.

Observations on aquatic Macrophyte Dynamics In the Reservoir Of The Balbina Hydroelectric Powerplant, Amazonas State, Brazil

Between 1991 and 1995 aquatic macrophyte composition was observed in the lower part of the reservoir of the hydroelectric power plant of Balbina (Amazonas, Brazil). After closure of the dam in 1987, vegetation cover - mostly Eichhornia crassipes - was high, but was not quantified. After 1990 it declined rapidly with a characteristic succession pattern: Eichhornia ® Vincularia + Cyperaceae ® Salvinia. The Cyperaceae, and many other less dominant species, were mostly associated with drift wood, produced by the decomposing, emergent forest. Comparison of the chemical data of the Uatumã river before the construction of the dam (1983) with those of later years (1989 - 1995) suggests that the succession was the result of a relatively mild and short period of eutrophication, followed by declining nutrient levels. Annual variation of water levels, followed by aquatic and terrestrial decomposition of the marginal vegetation, may allow for the maintenance of relatively productive vegetation belts along the shore lines of islands and inundated stream valleys.

Entre 1991 e 1995 a composição das macrófitas aquáticas da porção inferior do reservatório da hidrelétrica de Balbina foi observada. Após o fechamento do lago pela barragem em 1987 a cobertura do lago por macrófitas aquáticas, principalmente por Eichhornia crassipes, foi alta, mas não existem dados quantitativos. A partir de 1990 a redução da cobertura foi rápida, e notou-se uma sucessão nítida e consistente em diversas áreas do lago: Eichhornia ® Utricularia e Cyperaceae ® Salvinia. As ciperáceas e outras plantas menos dominantes foram associadas com madeiras flutuantes provenientes da floresta emergente em decomposição. O monitoramento contínuo das condições químicas da água (1983 - presente) sugere que a sucessão é o resultado de um período relativamente curto de eutrofização, seguido por um declínio rápido do teor de nutrientes. Devido as variações anuais do nível d'água, a faixa marginal das ilhas e dos igarapés inundados é caraterizada por solos relativamente ricos, graças à decomposição periódica de plantas terrestres inundadas na cheia, e de macrófitas aquáticas na seca. Portanto, espera-se que o lago, com suas milhares de ilhas e igarapés inundados, sustente uma certa produtividade pesqueira, apesar do baixo nível de nutrientes do lago.

A pesca no reservatório da hidrelétrica de Balbina (Amazonas, Brasil)

The Balbina hydroelectric power plant is located on the Uatumã River, 170 km from Manaus. The reservoir started to fill in 1987 and operations began in 1989, with one of the five planned turbines. Despite the reduction in fish diversity and other environmental and social damages that resulted from its installation, some species of fish proliferated in the reservoir, notably the tucunaré (Cichla sp), which is the target for intensive fishing. The exploitation of this species began as soon as the reservoir was filled, and has been maintained since, with a median production of 500 ton/yr, involving 100 to 160 professional fisherman as well as many amateur fishermen. The boats used have low capacity, between 800 and 5,000 kg. The fishes are maintained and transported in ice arising from Manaus. Due to the great dimensions of the reservoir, around 2360 km2, the density of fishermen is very low, about 0.04 and 0.07/km2. This study describes the fishery activities, analyses the levels of production and discusses criteria that should be adopted in order to achieve an appropriate management of this important natural resource.

A hidrelétrica de Balbina localiza-se no rio Uatumã, a 170 km de Manaus, pela BR/174. O enchimento do reservatório iniciou-se em outubro/87 e a usina começou a funcionar em fevereiro de 1989, com apenas uma das suas cinco turbinas. Apesar da redução da diversidade da ictiofauna e dos danos ambientais e sociais decorrentes do represamento, algumas espécies de peixes proliferaram no reservatório, resultando no incremento da atividade pesqueira, praticada basicamente sobre os estoques de tucunaré (Cichla spp). A explotação desta espécie, iniciada logo após a formação do reservatório, vem sendo feita até os dias atuais, com uma produção média em torno de 500 toneladas/ano e da qual participam 100 a 160 pescadores profissionais, além de dezenas de amadores. Os barcos de pesca tem baixa capacidade, entre 800 e 5.000 kg e o pescado é mantido e transportado em gelo adquirido em Manaus. Devido sobretudo às grandes dimensões do reservatório, cerca de 2360 km2, a densidade de pescadores é muito baixa, em torno de 0,04 a 0,07/km2. O presente trabalho descreve a atividade pesqueira praticada, analisa os níveis de produção e discute critérios que deveriam ser empregados com vistas ao aperfeiçoamento do manejo deste importante recurso natural.

Observations on aquatic Macrophyte Dynamics In the Reservoir Of The Balbina Hydroelectric Powerplant, Amazonas State, Brazil

Between 1991 and 1995 aquatic macrophyte composition was observed in the lower part of the reservoir of the hydroelectric power plant of Balbina (Amazonas, Brazil). After closure of the dam in 1987, vegetation cover - mostly Eichhornia crassipes - was high, but was not quantified. After 1990 it declined rapidly with a characteristic succession pattern: Eichhornia ® Vincularia + Cyperaceae ® Salvinia. The Cyperaceae, and many other less dominant species, were mostly associated with drift wood, produced by the decomposing, emergent forest. Comparison of the chemical data of the Uatumã river before the construction of the dam (1983) with those of later years (1989 - 1995) suggests that the succession was the result of a relatively mild and short period of eutrophication, followed by declining nutrient levels. Annual variation of water levels, followed by aquatic and terrestrial decomposition of the marginal vegetation, may allow for the maintenance of relatively productive vegetation belts along the shore lines of islands and inundated stream valleys.

Entre 1991 e 1995 a composição das macrófitas aquáticas da porção inferior do reservatório da hidrelétrica de Balbina foi observada. Após o fechamento do lago pela barragem em 1987 a cobertura do lago por macrófitas aquáticas, principalmente por Eichhornia crassipes, foi alta, mas não existem dados quantitativos. A partir de 1990 a redução da cobertura foi rápida, e notou-se uma sucessão nítida e consistente em diversas áreas do lago: Eichhornia ® Utricularia e Cyperaceae ® Salvinia. As ciperáceas e outras plantas menos dominantes foram associadas com madeiras flutuantes provenientes da floresta emergente em decomposição. O monitoramento contínuo das condições químicas da água (1983 - presente) sugere que a sucessão é o resultado de um período relativamente curto de eutrofização, seguido por um declínio rápido do teor de nutrientes. Devido as variações anuais do nível d'água, a faixa marginal das ilhas e dos igarapés inundados é caraterizada por solos relativamente ricos, graças à decomposição periódica de plantas terrestres inundadas na cheia, e de macrófitas aquáticas na seca. Portanto, espera-se que o lago, com suas milhares de ilhas e igarapés inundados, sustente uma certa produtividade pesqueira, apesar do baixo nível de nutrientes do lago.

A pesca no reservatório da hidrelétrica de Balbina (Amazonas, Brasil)

The Balbina hydroelectric power plant is located on the Uatumã River, 170 km from Manaus. The reservoir started to fill in 1987 and operations began in 1989, with one of the five planned turbines. Despite the reduction in fish diversity and other environmental and social damages that resulted from its installation, some species of fish proliferated in the reservoir, notably the tucunaré (Cichla sp), which is the target for intensive fishing. The exploitation of this species began as soon as the reservoir was filled, and has been maintained since, with a median production of 500 ton/yr, involving 100 to 160 professional fisherman as well as many amateur fishermen. The boats used have low capacity, between 800 and 5,000 kg. The fishes are maintained and transported in ice arising from Manaus. Due to the great dimensions of the reservoir, around 2360 km2, the density of fishermen is very low, about 0.04 and 0.07/km2. This study describes the fishery activities, analyses the levels of production and discusses criteria that should be adopted in order to achieve an appropriate management of this important natural resource.

A hidrelétrica de Balbina localiza-se no rio Uatumã, a 170 km de Manaus, pela BR/174. O enchimento do reservatório iniciou-se em outubro/87 e a usina começou a funcionar em fevereiro de 1989, com apenas uma das suas cinco turbinas. Apesar da redução da diversidade da ictiofauna e dos danos ambientais e sociais decorrentes do represamento, algumas espécies de peixes proliferaram no reservatório, resultando no incremento da atividade pesqueira, praticada basicamente sobre os estoques de tucunaré (Cichla spp). A explotação desta espécie, iniciada logo após a formação do reservatório, vem sendo feita até os dias atuais, com uma produção média em torno de 500 toneladas/ano e da qual participam 100 a 160 pescadores profissionais, além de dezenas de amadores. Os barcos de pesca tem baixa capacidade, entre 800 e 5.000 kg e o pescado é mantido e transportado em gelo adquirido em Manaus. Devido sobretudo às grandes dimensões do reservatório, cerca de 2360 km2, a densidade de pescadores é muito baixa, em torno de 0,04 a 0,07/km2. O presente trabalho descreve a atividade pesqueira praticada, analisa os níveis de produção e discute critérios que deveriam ser empregados com vistas ao aperfeiçoamento do manejo deste importante recurso natural.