Epidemiology and etiology of hand, foot, and mouth disease in Zhengzhou, China, from 2009 to 2021.

Background: Hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) is a common childhood infectious disease caused by a variety of enteroviruses (EVs). To explore the epidemiological characteristics and etiology of HFMD in Zhengzhou, China, we conducted a systematic analysis of HFMD surveillance data from Zhengzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention from January 2009 to December 2021 (https://wjw.zhengzhou.gov.cn/). Methods: Surveillance data were collected from Zhengzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention from January 2009 to December 2021 (https://wjw.zhengzhou.gov.cn/). Cases were analyzed according to the time of onset, type of diagnosis, characteristics, viral serotype, and epidemiological trends. Results: We found that the primary causative agent responsible for the HFMD outbreaks in Zhengzhou was Enterovirus A71 (EVA-71) (48.56%) before 2014. After 2015, other EVs gradually became the dominant strains (57.68%). The data revealed that the HFMD epidemics in Zhengzhou displayed marked seasonality, with major peaks occurring from April to June, followed by secondary peaks from October to November, except in 2020. Both the severity and case-fatality ratio of HFMD decreased following the COVID-19 pandemic (severity ‰: 13.46 vs. 0.17; case-fatality ‰: 0.21 vs. 0, respectively). Most severe cases were observed in patients aged 1 year and below, accounting for 45.81%. Conclusions: Overall, the incidence rate of HFMD decreased in Zhengzhou following the introduction of the EVA-71 vaccine in 2016. However, it is crucial to acknowledge that HFMD prevalence continues to exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern and periodicity, and the occurrence of other EV infections poses a new challenge for children's health.

Synergetic association between coxsackievirus A16 genotype evolution and recombinant form shifts.

Coxsackievirus A16 (CVA16) is a major pathogen that causes hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD). The recombination form (RF) shifts and global transmission dynamics of CVA16 remain unknown. In this retrospective study, global sequences of CVA16 were retrieved from the GenBank database and analyzed using comprehensive phylogenetic inference, RF surveys, and population structure. A total of 1,663 sequences were collected, forming a 442-sequences dataset for VP1 coding region analysis and a 345-sequences dataset for RF identification. Based on the VP1 coding region used for serotyping, three genotypes (A, B, and D), two subgenotypes of genotype B (B1 and B2), and three clusters of subgenotype B1 (B1a, B1b, and B1c) were identified. Cluster B1b has dominated the global epidemics, B2 disappeared in 2000, and D is an emerging genotype dating back to August 2002. Globally, four oscillation phases of CVA16 evolution, with a peak in 2013, and three migration pathways were identified. Europe, China, and Japan have served as the seeds for the global transmission of CVA16. Based on the 3D coding region of the RFs, five clusters of RFs (RF-A to -E) were identified. The shift in RFs from RF-B and RF-C to RF-D was accompanied by a change in genotype from B2 to B1a and B1c and then to B1b. In conclusion, the evolution and population dynamics of CVA16, especially the coevolution of 3D and VP1 genes, revealed that genotype evolution and RF replacement were synergistic rather than stochastic.

Atypical cutaneous findings of hand-foot-mouth disease in children: A systematic review.

INTRODUCTION: Hand-foot-mouth disease (HFMD) is a common childhood infectious disease. Atypical skin findings of HFMD, often associated with coxsackievirus A6 (CVA6), were first reported in 2008, with increasing reports worldwide since. Atypical lesions of HFMD often involve sites beyond the palms and soles and tend to have unusual, polymorphic morphology. METHODS: A systematic review was conducted on clinical features and outcomes of pediatric HFMD with atypical cutaneous manifestations. RESULTS: Eighty-five studies were included, representing 1359 cases with mean age 2.4 years and a male predominance of 61%. The most reported morphologies were vesicles (53%), papules (49%), and bullae (36%). Other morphologies included eczema herpeticum-like (19%), purpuric/petechial (7%), and Gianotti Crosti-like (4%). Common atypical sites included the arms and/or legs (47%), face (45%), and trunk (27%). CVA6 was identified in 63% of cases. Symptoms resolved in a mean of 10 days. Overall, 16% of cases received treatment, most commonly with acyclovir, intravenous antibiotics, or topical steroids. The most common complications were nail changes (21%) and desquamation (4%) which occurred a mean of 3 and 2 weeks after symptoms, respectively. CONCLUSION: Due to unusual morphologies resembling other conditions, HFMD with atypical cutaneous findings may be misdiagnosed, leading to inappropriate and unnecessary investigations, hospitalization, and treatment. Greater awareness of atypical presentations of HFMD is warranted to improve patient care and counseling on infection control precautions.

Isolation and identification of Coxsackievirus A16 strains in Kunming,Yunnan Province in 2019 and analysis of genetic characteristics of VP1 gene / 中国生物制品学杂志

@#Objective To analyze the genetic characteristics of the entire VP1 gene of Coxsackievirus A16(CVA16) strains isolated from the feces of patients with hand,foot and mouth disease(HFMD) in Yunnan Province in 2019.Methods The virus was isolated from human embryonic lung diploid fibroblast(KMB-17) cells and African green monkey kidney(Vero)cells,and the primers for the complete VP1 gene sequence of CVA16 were designed.The target fragment was amplified by RT-PCR and sequenced;the complete VP1 sequence was analyzed by softwares such as MEGA 7.0 and Geneious 9.0.2.Results A total of 26 CVA16 strains were isolated,including eight KMB-17 isolates and 18 Vero isolates.Twenty CVA16isolates were randomly selected for analysis,and three isolates were found to have Bla and 17 B1b genotypes;the nucleotide and amino acid homology of 17 CVA16 B1b isolates were 93.8%—100% and 98.3%—100%,and the nucleotide and amino acid homology with other domestic isolates was 91.1 %—99.2% and 97.3%—99.0%,respectively;the nucleotide and amino acid homology of the three Bla isolates was 98.0%—98.1% and 99.3%,and those with other domestic Bla isolates was 88.7%—98.1% and 98.3%—99.7%,respectively;17 B1b isolates and other three Bla isolates showed the nucleotide and amino acid homology of 87.4%—88.4% and 97.3%—98.7%.Conclusion The CVA16 prevalent in Kunming in 2019 belonged to Bla and B1b genotypes,with B1b as the main strain,and all of them were prevalent strains in the mainland of China.

A review on current diagnostic tools and potential optical absorption spectroscopy for HFMD detection.

Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease (HFMD) is an outbreak infectious disease that can easily spread among children under the age of five. The most common causative agents of HFMD are enterovirus 71 (EV71) and coxsackievirus A16 (CVA16), but infection caused by EV71 is more associated with fatalities due to severe neurological disorders. The present diagnosis methods rely on physical examinations by the doctors and further confirmation by laboratories detection methods such as viral culture and polymerase chain reaction. Clinical signs of HFMD infection and other childhood diseases such as chicken pox, and allergies are similar, yet the genetics and pathogenicity of the viruses are substantially different. Thus, there is an urgent need for an early screening of HFMD using an inexpensive and user-friendly device that can directly detect the causative agents of the disease. This paper reviews current HFMD diagnostic methods based on various target types, such as nucleic acid, protein, and whole virus. This was followed by a thorough discussion on the emerging sensing technologies for HFMD detection, including surface plasmon resonance, electrochemical sensor, and surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy. Lastly, optical absorption spectroscopic method was critically discussed and proposed as a promising technology for HFMD screening and detection.

Structure-based virtual screening and fragment replacement to design novel inhibitors of Coxsackievirus A16 (CVA16).

Numerous studies have shown that hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD) pathogen Coxsackievirus A16 (CVA16) can also cause severe neurological complications and even death. Currently, there is no effective drugs and vaccines for CVA16. Therefore, developing a drug against CVA16 has become critical. In this study, we conducted two strategies-virtual screening (VS) and fragment replacement to obtain better candidates than the known drug GPP3. Through VS, 37 candidate drugs were screened (exhibiting a lower binding energy than GPP3). After toxicity evaluations, we obtained five candidates, analysed their binding modes and found that four candidates could enter the binding pocket of the GPP3. In another strategy, we analysed the four positions in GPP3 structures by the FragRep webserver and obtained a large number of candidates after replacing different functional groups, we obtained eight candidates (that target the four positions above) with the combined binding score and synthetic accessibility evaluations. AMDock software was uniformly utilized to perform molecular docking evaluation of the candidates with binding activity superior to that of GPP3. Finally, the selected top three molecules (Lapatinib, B001 and C001) and its interaction with CAV16 were validated by molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. The results indicated that all three molecules retain inside the pocket of CAV16 receptor throughout the simulation process, and he binding energy calculated from the MD simulation trajectories also support the strong affinity of the top three molecules towards the CVA16. These results will provide new ideas and technical guidance for designing and applying CVA16 therapeutics.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

HIGHLIGHTSThe dual strategies of computer-aided VS and fragment replacement were first used to obtain candidate small molecules with stronger binding activity than the hand-foot-mouth COV16 viral drug molecule GPP3.The binding patterns of GPP3 and several candidate molecules obtained by VS were analyzed, and a new and interesting binding pattern was found ­ binding at the entrance of the pocket instead of inside the pocket.The Top3 candidate molecules were verified by MD simulations.Through molecular docking, a comprehensive comparative analysis was conducted between all candidate molecules obtained in this study and anti-hand-foot-mouth virus drugs used in clinic.

The transfer of maternal antibodies and dynamics of maternal and natural infection-induced antibodies against coxsackievirus A16 in Chinese children 0-13 years of age: a longitudinal cohort study.

BACKGROUND: A major hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD) pathogen, coxsackievirus A16 (CVA16), has predominated in several of the last 10 years and caused the largest number of HFMD outbreaks between 2011 and 2018 in China. We evaluated the efficacy of maternal anti-CVA16 antibody transfer via the placenta and explored the dynamics of maternal and natural infection-induced neutralizing antibodies in children. METHODS: Two population-based longitudinal cohorts in southern China were studied during 2013-2018. Participants were enrolled in autumn 2013, including 2475 children aged 1-9 years old and 1066 mother-neonate pairs, and followed for 3 years. Blood/cord samples were collected for CVA16-neutralizing antibody detection. The maternal antibody transfer efficacy, age-specific seroprevalence, geometric mean titre (GMT) and immune response kinetics were estimated. RESULTS: The average maternal antibody transfer ratio was 0.88 (95% CI 0.80-0.96). Transferred maternal antibody levels declined rapidly (half-life: 2.0 months, 95% CI 1.9-2.2 months). The GMT decayed below the positive threshold (8) by 1.5 months of age. Due to natural infections, it increased above 8 after 1.4 years and reached 32 by 5 years of age, thereafter dropping slightly. Although the average duration of maternal antibody-mediated protection was < 3 months, the duration extended to 6 months on average for mothers with titres ≥ 64. CONCLUSIONS: Anti-CVA16 maternal antibodies are efficiently transferred to neonates, but their levels decline quickly. Children aged 0-5 years are the main susceptible population and should be protected by CVA16 vaccination, with the optimal vaccination time between 1.5 months and 1 year of age.

Genetic and Cross Neutralization Analyses of Coxsackievirus A16 Circulating in Taiwan from 1998 to 2021 Suggest Dominant Genotype B1 can Serve as Vaccine Candidate.

Coxsackievirus A16 (CVA16) is well known for causing hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD) and outbreaks were frequently reported in Taiwan in the past twenty years. The epidemiology and genetic variations of CVA16 in Taiwan from 1998 to 2021 were analyzed in this study. CVA16 infections usually occurred in early summer and early winter, and showed increased incidence in 1998, 2000-2003, 2005, 2007-2008, and 2010 in Taiwan. Little or no CVA16 was detected from 2017 to 2021. CVA16 infection was prevalent in patients between 1 to 3 years old. A total of 69 isolates were sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis based on the VP1 region showed that CVA16 subgenotype B1 was dominantly isolated in Taiwan from 1998 to 2019, and B2 was identified only from isolates collected in 1999 and 2000. There was a high frequency of synonymous mutations in the amino acid sequences of the VP1 region among CVA16 isolates, with the exception of position 145 which showed positive selection. The recombination analysis of the whole genome of CVA16 isolates indicated that the 5'-untranslated region and the non-structural protein region of CVA16 subgenotype B1 were recombined with Coxsackievirus A4 (CVA4) and enterovirus A71 (EVA71) genotype A, respectively. The recombination pattern of subgenotype B2 was similar to B1, however, the 3D region was similar to EVA71 genotype B. Cross-neutralization among CVA16 showed that mouse antisera from various subgenotypes viruses can cross-neutralize different genotype with high neutralizing antibody titers. These results suggest that the dominant CVA16 genotype B1 can serve as a vaccine candidate for CVA16.

Viral determinants that drive Enterovirus-A71 fitness and virulence.

Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease (HFMD) is usually a self-limiting, mild childhood disease that is caused mainly by Coxsackie virus A16 (CVA16) and Enterovirus A71 (EV-A71), both members of the Picornaviridae family. However, recurring HFMD outbreaks and epidemics due to EV-A71 infection in the Western Pacific region, and the propensity of EV-A71 strains to cause severe neurological complications have made this neurotropic virus a serious public health concern in afflicted countries. High mutation rate leading to viral quasispecies combined with frequent intra- and inter-typic recombination events amongst co-circulating EV-A71 strains have contributed to the great diversity and fast evolution of EV-A71 genomes, making impossible any accurate prediction of the next epidemic strain. Comparative genome sequence analyses and mutagenesis approaches have led to the identification of a number of viral determinants involved in EV-A71 fitness and virulence. These viral determinants include amino acid residues located in the structural proteins of the virus, affecting attachment to the host cell surface, receptor binding, and uncoating events. Critical residues in non-structural proteins have also been identified, including 2C, 3A, 3C proteases and the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Finally, mutations altering key secondary structures in the 5' untranslated region were also found to influence EV-A71 fitness and virulence. While our current understanding of EV-A71 pathogenesis remains fragmented, these studies may help in the rational design of effective treatments and broadly protective vaccine candidates.

Human Intestinal Organoids Recapitulate Enteric Infections of Enterovirus and Coronavirus.

Enteroviruses, such as EV-A71 and CVA16, mainly infect the human gastrointestinal tract. Human coronaviruses, including SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, have been variably associated with gastrointestinal symptoms. We aimed to optimize the human intestinal organoids and hypothesize that these optimized intestinal organoids can recapitulate enteric infections of enterovirus and coronavirus. We demonstrate that the optimized human intestinal organoids enable better simulation of the native human intestinal epithelium, and that they are significantly more susceptible to EV-A71 than CVA16. Higher replication of EV-A71 than CVA16 in the intestinal organoids triggers a more vigorous cellular response. However, SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 exhibit distinct dynamics of virus-host interaction; more robust propagation of SARS-CoV triggers minimal cellular response, whereas, SARS-CoV-2 exhibits lower replication capacity but elicits a moderate cellular response. Taken together, the disparate profile of the virus-host interaction of enteroviruses and coronaviruses in human intestinal organoids may unravel the cellular basis of the distinct pathogenicity of these viral pathogens.

Genetic Variation of Multiple Serotypes of Enteroviruses Associated with Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease in Southern China.

Enteroviruses (EVs) species A are a major public health issue in the Asia-Pacific region and cause frequent epidemics of hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD) in China. Mild infections are common in children; however, HFMD can also cause severe illness that affects the central nervous system. To molecularly characterize EVs, a prospective HFMD virological surveillance program was performed in China between 2013 and 2016. Throat swabs, rectal swabs and stool samples were collected from suspected HFMD patients at participating hospitals. EVs were detected using generic real-time and nested reverse transcription-polymerase chain reactions (RT-PCRs). Then, the complete VP1 regions of enterovirus A71 (EV-A71), coxsackievirus A16 (CVA16) and CVA6 were sequenced to analyze amino acid changes and construct a viral molecular phylogeny. Of the 2836 enrolled HFMD patients, 2,517 (89%) were EV positive. The most frequently detected EVs were CVA16 (32.5%, 819), CVA6 (31.2%, 785), and EV-A71 (20.4%, 514). The subgenogroups CVA16_B1b, CVA6_D3a and EV-A71_C4a were predominant in China and recombination was not observed in the VP1 region. Sequence analysis revealed amino acid variations at the 30, 29 and 44 positions in the VP1 region of EV-A71, CVA16 and CVA6 (compared to the respective prototype strains BrCr, G10 and Gdula), respectively. Furthermore, in 21 of 24 (87.5%) identified EV-A71 samples, a known amino acid substitution (D31N) that may enhance neurovirulence was detected. Our study provides insights about the genetic characteristics of common HFMD-associated EVs. However, the emergence and virulence of the described mutations require further investigation.

Analysis of microRNAs and target genes associated with immune response to EVA71 and CVA16 infection in human respiratory epithelial cells / 中华微生物学和免疫学杂志

Objective:To analyze differentially expressed microRNAs (miRNAs) and target genes in human respiratory epithelial cells (16HBE) after enterovirus 71 (EV71) and coxsackievirus A16 (CVA16) infection using high-throughput sequencing.Methods:TargetScan and miRDB databases were used to predict the target genes of miRNAs that were both up-regulated or down-regulated after EV71 and CVA16 infection. The genes that were both up-regulated and down-regulated were screened out. GO and pathway analysis of the target genes were conducted to screen immune-related target genes and their corresponding miRNAs. The target genes and their corresponding miRNAs that were up-regulated or down-regulated in both immune-related GO and pathway were further screened. Some miRNAs and their target genes were selected for qRT-PCR verification.Results:There were 598 target genes of up-regulated miRNAs and 1 311 target genes of down-regulated miRNAs and 62 target genes that might be up-regulated or down-regulated simultaneously were screened out. The number of up-regulated target genes involved in immune-related GO and pathway were 17 and 13, respectively, and the number of corresponding miRNAs were 15 and 17, respectively. There were 58 and 47 down-regulated target genes involved in immune-related GO and pathway, respectively, and the number of corresponding miRNAs were 30 and 42, respectively. Three up-regulated target genes were involved in both immune-related GO and pathway and regulated by four miRNAs. Nine down-regulated target genes were involved in both immune-related GO and pathway and regulated by 13 miRNAs.Conclusions:This study was conducive to elucidate the host-pathogen interaction after EV71 and CVA16 infection, and provided reference for studying the pathogenesis of hand, foot and mouth disease.

Acute enterovirus infections significantly alter host cellular DNA methylation status.

Acute infections with enterovirus 71 (EV71) and coxsackievirus A16 (CVA16) usually cause Hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD) among infants and young children with several large outbreaks worldwide. Unfortunately, the molecular mechanisms underlying enterovirus infections remain largely unknown. In this study, we analyzed the genome-wide DNA methylation patterns of host cells in response to EV71 and CVA16 infections using the Illumina Infinium HumanMethylation450 BeadChip. Of over 480,000 loci studied, significant differential methylation was observed between EV71 infected-cells and control cells at 3957 CpG sites, out of which 2478 were hypermethylated and 1479 were hypomethylated, whereas CVA16 infection resulted in methylation level changes of 5194 CpG sites with 4288 hypermethylated and 906 hypomethylated. These differential methylated loci displayed a wide range of genomic distributions in chromosomes, inside and surrounding areas (shores and shelves) of CpG islands, as well as functional gene regions including promoter, gene body and 3'UTR. Based on methylation alterations, 1189 genes were identified to be potentially co-associated with the replication processes of two enteroviruses. GO function annotation and enrichment analysis of 1189 common differentially methylated genes reflected a broad spectrum of biological regulatory events during viral infection. KEGG pathway analysis indicated the involvement of diverse signaling pathways including viral myocarditis, Notch signaling and antigen processing and presentation. Our present study provides a novel insight into enterovirus-host interaction network at epigenetic profile, thus contributing to improved understanding of HFMD pathogenesis.

Lycorine Derivative LY-55 Inhibits EV71 and CVA16 Replication Through Downregulating Autophagy.

Hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) is a global health concern, especially in the Asia-Pacific region. HFMD caused by Enterovirus 71 (EV71) and Coxsackievirus A16 (CVA16) infection is usually self-limited but occasionally leads to severe pulmonary edema, neurological complications, and even death. Unfortunately, no effective drugs are currently available in clinical practice for the prevention and treatment of HFMD. Thus, anti-HFMD drugs must be urgently developed. A previous study had reported that lycorine could inhibit EV71 replication. In the present study, we found that LY-55, a lycorine derivative, inhibited the replication of EV71 and CVA16 in vitro and provided partial protection to mice from EV71 infection, as indicated by the decreased viral load and protein expression levels in muscles, clinical scores, and increased survival rates of infected mice. Mechanistically, LY-55 was not directly viricidal. Instead, the LY-55-mediated inhibition of EV71 and CVA16 was found to be mechanistically possible, at least in part, through downregulating autophagy, which plays an important role for EV71 and CVA16 replication. These findings suggest that LY-55 could be a potential lead or supplement for the development of anti-HFMD agents in the future.

Pathological and molecular studies on Coxsackie virus A-16 isolated from hand, foot, and mouth disease cases in India: Approach using neonatal mouse model.

The present study highlights pathogenesis and molecular aspects of Coxsackie virus A-16 (CVA-16) strains isolated from hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) cases from India using a neonatal mice model. ICR mice were intraperitoneally inoculated with CVA-16/311 strain isolated from HFMD cases. Mice developed hind and forelimb paralysis on day 3 of post infection. Histopathological observations of hind limb muscles showed necrosis, dissolution of muscle fiber cells, infiltration of inflammatory cells, marked dilated ventricle, hemorrhages, and neuronal degeneration in the brain. Immunohistochemical studies revealed high expression of CVA-16/311-specific viral antigen in limb muscles, brain, heart from day 3 till day 7 of post-infection. VP1 gene-based reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction conducted in RNA samples of different tissue organs of infected mice followed by sequencing of the positive amplimers revealed presence of CVA-16/311-specific viral sequences. Phylogenetic analysis based on the VP1 gene showed the presence of B1c sub genotype of CVA-16/311 strain in targeted tissue organs. Sequence analysis revealed major genetic changes in heart, skeletal muscle tissues at the nucleotide and amino acid levels. Genetic changes occurred in organs of mice might predict some potential targets and might act as markers of virulence for neuronal tropism. Pathogenesis and molecular studies of CVA-16 strains isolated from HFMD cases using neonatal mice model was conducted for the first time from India.

Rapid detection of hand, foot and mouth disease enterovirus genotypes by multiplex PCR.

Hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD) is a pediatric disease associated with infection by enterovirus (EV) genotypes. The major HFMD EV pathogens are enterovirus A71 (EVA71) and coxsackievirus A16 (CVA16); however, recently, coxsackievirus A6 (CVA6) and coxsackievirus A10 (CVA10) have also emerged. EV genotypes cannot be distinguished on clinical grounds and a new methodology for the rapid detection of the four major HFMD EV genotypes is urgently required. In the present study, a multiplex real-time PCR assay was established for the simultaneous detection of CVA6, CVA10, CVA16 and EVA71. The specificity and sensitivity of the assay was determined on a validation panel of clinical samples, comprising cerebrospinal fluid (n = 51), blood (n = 39), feces (n = 58) and throat swabs (n = 29). The results showed that the multiplex real-time PCR exhibited high specificity, no cross-reactivity with other EV genotypes, lower limits of detection for CVA6, CVA10, CVA16 and EVA71 were 4 × 103, 4 × 102, 5 × 102, and 3 × 103 copies/µL, respectively and had comparable sensitivity to singleplex assays testing clinical samples. The multiplex real-time PCR methodology established in this study can be employed for the rapid detection of the four most prevalent HFMD-associated EVs, for epidemiologic surveillance of circulating EV genotypes and for assessing treatment responses and vaccine studies.

The long non-coding RNA expression profile of Coxsackievirus A16 infected RD cells identified by RNA-seq.

Coxsackievirus A16 (CVA16) is one of major pathogens of hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD) in children. Long non-coding RNAs (IncRNAs) have been implicated in various biological processes, but they have not been associated with CVA16 infection. In this study, we comprehensively characterized the landscape of IncRNAs of normal and CVA16 infected rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) cells using RNA-Seq to investigate the functional relevance of IncRNAs. We showed that a total of 760 IncRNAs were upregulated and 1210 IncRNAs were downregulated. Out of these dysregulated IncRNAs, 43.64% were intergenic, 22.31% were sense, 15.89% were intronic, 8.67% were bidirectional, 5.59% were antisense, 3.85% were sRNA host IncRNAs and 0.05% were enhancer. Six dysregulated IncRNAs were validated by quantitative PCR assays and the secondary structures of these IncRNAs were projected. Moreover, we conducted a bioinformatics analysis of an IncRNAs (ENST00000602478) to elucidate the diversity of modification and functions of IncRNAs. In summary, the current study compared the dysregulated IncRNAs profile upon CVA16 challenge and illustrated the intricate relationship between coding and IncRNAs transcripts. These results may not only provide a complete picture of transcription in CVA16 infected cells but also provide novel molecular targets for treatments of HFMD.

The antiviral and antimicrobial activities of licorice, a widely-used Chinese herb.

Licorice is a common herb which has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for centuries. More than 20 triterpenoids and nearly 300 flavonoids have been isolated from licorice. Recent studies have shown that these metabolites possess many pharmacological activities, such as antiviral, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antitumor and other activities. This paper provides a summary of the antiviral and antimicrobial activities of licorice. The active components and the possible mechanisms for these activities are summarized in detail. This review will be helpful for the further studies of licorice for its potential therapeutic effects as an antiviral or an antimicrobial agent.

The antiviral and antimicrobial activities of licorice, a widely-used Chinese herb

Licorice is a common herb which has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for centuries. More than 20 triterpenoids and nearly 300 flavonoids have been isolated from licorice. Recent studies have shown that these metabolites possess many pharmacological activities, such as antiviral, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antitumor and other activities. This paper provides a summary of the antiviral and antimicrobial activities of licorice. The active components and the possible mechanisms for these activities are summarized in detail. This review will be helpful for the further studies of licorice for its potential therapeutic effects as an antiviral or an antimicrobial agent.