Effect of Meal-Timing on the Association of Unsaturated Fatty Acids with All-Cause and Cardiovascular Mortality among Adults: A Prospective Cohort Study with 10-Year Follow-Up.

BACKGROUND: Conflicting results have been reported on the association of dietary unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs) with longevity and cardiovascular health. Most previous studies have focused only on the amount of UFAs consumed, not the timing of intake. METHODS: This prospective cohort study used data from 30,136 adults aged 18 years and older. Intakes of UFAs by meal time and types were assessed by a 24-h dietary recall for two days. The covariate-adjusted survey-weighted Cox proportional hazards models were performed to evaluate the associations of dietary total unsaturated fatty acid (TUFA), polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), and monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) intakes throughout the day and three meals with mortality. RESULTS: During a median of 10.0 years of follow-up, 4510 total deaths occurred. All-cause mortality decreased with increasing intakes at dinner of TUFA (HR: 0.87 [0.77-0.98]), PUFA (HR: 0.81 [0.73-0.91]), and MUFA (HR: 0.88 [0.77-0.99]). With an increased intake of PUFA at dinner, CVD mortality showed a decreasing trend. However, the inverted L-shaped non-linear trend in all-cause mortality was found with increasing intake at breakfast of TUFA (HR: 1.35 [1.17-1.57], Q3 vs. Q1), PUFA (HR: 1.30 [1.13-1.50]), and MUFA (HR: 1.28 [1.13-1.45]). Meanwhile, increased breakfast intake of UFAs was associated with increased CVD and heart disease mortality. CONCLUSIONS: Meal timing influences the association of UFAs with all-cause and CVD-related mortality.

Nobiletin Stimulates Adrenal Hormones and Modulates the Circadian Clock in Mice.

Polymethoxyflavonoids, such as nobiletin (abundant in Citrus depressa), have been reported to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and anti-dementia effects, and are also a circadian clock modulator through retinoic acid receptor-related orphan receptor (ROR) α/γ. However, the optimal timing of nobiletin intake has not yet been determined. Here, we explored the time-dependent treatment effects of nobiletin and a possible novel mechanistic idea for nobiletin-induced circadian clock regulation in mice. In vivo imaging showed that the PER2::LUC rhythm in the peripheral organs was altered in accordance with the timing of nobiletin administration (100 mg/kg). Administration at ZT4 (middle of the light period) caused an advance in the peripheral clock, whereas administration at ZT16 (middle of the dark period) caused an increase in amplitude. In addition, the intraperitoneal injection of nobiletin significantly and potently stimulated corticosterone and adrenaline secretion and caused an increase in Per1 expression in the peripheral tissues. Nobiletin inhibited phosphodiesterase (PDE) 4A1A, 4B1, and 10A2. Nobiletin or rolipram (PDE4 inhibitor) injection, but not SR1078 (RORα/γ agonist), caused acute Per1 expression in the peripheral tissues. Thus, the present study demonstrated a novel function of nobiletin and the regulation of the peripheral circadian clock.

The impact of time-restricted eating on health-related quality of life: a systematic literature review.

CONTEXT: Time-restricted eating (TRE) is a novel dietary intervention shown to facilitate weight loss and improve metabolic health. However, like any dietary intervention, long-term success largely depends on individual adherence, which can be influenced by whether the intervention impacts the individual's health-related quality of life (HR-QoL). Despite the growing body of research investigating TRE as a dietary approach and its potential impact on HR-QoL in adults, to date there has been no systematic review to summarize these findings. OBJECTIVE: To examine the impact of TRE on HR-QoL in adults. DATA SOURCES: All randomized controlled trials, pre-post and pilot/feasibility studies were searched in PubMed, EMBASE via Ovid, CINAHL, Cochrane Library, and PsycINFO via Ovid until March 20, 2023. DATA EXTRACTION: Two researchers were involved in the screening and paper selection process. A single researcher extracted all relevant data from eligible studies. CONCLUSION: Overall, 10 studies were eligible for inclusion in this systematic review. Four studies reported improvements in overall HR-QoL scores among participants with type 2 diabetes, middle-aged women with obesity, generally healthy adults, and generally healthy adult employees. Three studies reported significant and nonsignificant improvements in some domains of HR-QoL assessment tools among overweight, sedentary older adults, overweight or obese adults, and 24-hour shift workers. No studies reported that TRE adversely affected HR-QoL. Improvements in HR-QoL appeared to occur primarily at 12 weeks/3 months. There was no clear relationship between HR-QoL scores and TRE protocol, additional study outcomes, participant health status, age, or adherence. Although further research is required to elucidate the impact of TRE on HR-QoL, the findings reveal that no studies show that TRE adversely affects HR-QoL. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION: Open Science Framework (OSF) (The Impact of Time-Restricted Eating on Health-Related Quality of Life: A Systematic Review; https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/9NK45).

Daily Duration of Eating for Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Time-limited eating is a dietary intervention whereby eating is limited to a specific window of time during the day. The usual eating windows of adults, and how these can be manipulated for dietary interventions, is well documented. However, there is a paucity of data on eating windows of young people, the manipulation of which may be a useful intervention for reducing obesity. This paper reviewed the existing literature on the eating windows of children and adolescents, aged 5-18 years, plus clock times of first and last intakes and variations by subgroup. Two databases (Medline and Embase) were searched for eligible papers published between February 2013 and February 2023, with forward searching of the citation network of included studies on Web of Science. Articles were screened, and data extracted, in duplicate by two independent reviewers. Ten studies were included, with both observational and experimental designs. Narrative synthesis showed large variations in eating windows with average values ranging from 9.7 h to 16.4 h. Meta-analysis, of five studies, showed a pooled mean daily eating window of 11.3 h (95% CI 11.0, 11.7). Large variations in eating windows exist across different study populations; however, the pooled data suggest that it may be possible to design time-limited eating interventions in paediatric populations aimed at reducing eating windows. Further high-quality research, investigating eating windows and subsequent associations with health outcomes, is needed.

Exploring Australian Dietitians' knowledge, experience and perspectives of time-restricted eating in private practice: A qualitative study.

Time-restricted eating is a novel nutrition intervention with evidence of beneficial effects on weight loss, blood glucose management, and other metabolic health outcomes. Adherence to time-restricted eating is higher than some traditional nutrition interventions to support individuals living with overweight/obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus. However, there may be an evidence-practice gap of time-restricted eating in Australian dietetic practice. The present study aimed to explore dietitians' knowledge, experiences, and perspectives of time-restricted eating and timing of eating advice in practice. Semi-structured interviews with 10 private practice dietitians across Australia were conducted. Audio recordings were transcribed and analysed thematically. Six themes were identified: (i) distinction of time-restricted eating to other fasting protocols; (ii) knowledge of health benefits of time-restricted eating; (iii) patient-led advice frequently given: timing of breakfast and dinner; (iv) dietitian-led advice frequently given: eating cut-off time to avoid late night snacking; (v) barriers and facilitators to offering time-restricted eating or timing of eating advice; (vi) timing of eating advice within professional guidelines and resources. These findings suggest the need for development of professional resources and educational development tools for dietitians on time-restricted eating.

Chrononutrition in type 2 diabetes mellitus and obesity: A narrative review.

Chrononutrition is a nutritional regimen that follows our biological clock, marked by the changes in metabolism that occur during the day. This regimen includes the distribution of energy, the regularity and frequency of meals, and the importance of these factors for metabolic health. A growing body of animal and human evidence indicates that the timing of food intake throughout the day can have a significant and beneficial impact on the metabolic health and well-being of individuals. In particular, both the timing and frequency of meals have been associated with obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), cardiovascular disease, and other chronic conditions. Today's busy lifestyle makes many people skip breakfast and eat late at night. Eating late at night has been shown to cause a circadian misalignment, with the latter having a negative impact on weight control and glucose metabolism. Additionally, some studies have found a relatively strong association between skipping breakfast and insulin resistance, and T2DM. Against the backdrop of escalating obesity and T2DM rates, coupled with the recognized influence of food timing on disease evolution and control, this review aimed to synthesize insights from epidemiological and intervention studies of the interplay of timing of food intake and macronutrient consumption, reporting their impact on obesity and T2DM.

Chrono-nutrition for hypertension.

Despite the advancement in blood pressure (BP) lowering medications, uncontrolled hypertension persists, underscoring a stagnation of effective clinical strategies. Novel and effective lifestyle therapies are needed to prevent and manage hypertension to mitigate future progression to cardiovascular and chronic kidney diseases. Chrono-nutrition, aligning the timing of eating with environmental cues and internal biological clocks, has emerged as a potential strategy to improve BP in high-risk populations. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the circadian physiology of BP with an emphasis on renal and vascular circadian biology. The potential of Chrono-nutrition as a lifestyle intervention for hypertension is discussed and current evidence for the efficacy of time-restricted eating is presented.

Longitudinal associations of circadian eating patterns with sleep quality, fatigue and inflammation in colorectal cancer survivors up to 24 months post-treatment.

Fatigue and insomnia, potentially induced by inflammation, are distressing symptoms experienced by colorectal cancer (CRC) survivors. Emerging evidence suggests that besides the nutritional quality and quantity, also the timing, frequency and regularity of dietary intake (chrono-nutrition) could be important for alleviating these symptoms. We investigated longitudinal associations of circadian eating patterns with sleep quality, fatigue and inflammation in CRC survivors. In a prospective cohort of 459 stage I-III CRC survivors, four repeated measurements were performed between 6 weeks and 24 months post-treatment. Chrono-nutrition variables included meal energy contribution, frequency (a maximum of six meals could be reported each day), irregularity and time window (TW) of energetic intake, operationalised based on 7-d dietary records. Outcomes included sleep quality, fatigue and plasma concentrations of inflammatory markers. Longitudinal associations of chrono-nutrition variables with outcomes from 6 weeks until 24 months post-treatment were analysed by confounder-adjusted linear mixed models, including hybrid models to disentangle intra-individual changes from inter-individual differences over time. An hour longer TW of energetic intake between individuals was associated with less fatigue (ß: -6·1; 95 % CI (-8·8, -3·3)) and insomnia (ß: -4·8; 95 % CI (-7·4, -2·1)). A higher meal frequency of on average 0·6 meals/d between individuals was associated with less fatigue (ß: -3·7; 95 % CI (-6·6, -0·8)). An hour increase in TW of energetic intake within individuals was associated with less insomnia (ß: -3·0; 95 % CI (-5·2, -0·8)) and inflammation (ß: -0·1; 95 % CI (-0·1, 0·0)). Our results suggest that longer TWs of energetic intake and higher meal frequencies may be associated with less fatigue, insomnia and inflammation among CRC survivors. Future studies with larger contrasts in chrono-nutrition variables are needed to confirm these findings.

Chrono-Nutritional Patterns, Medical Comorbidities, and Psychological Status in Patients with Severe Obesity.

Chrono-nutrition studies dietary habits and their role in the onset of metabolic diseases. The aim of this study is to describe chrono-nutritional patterns based on the analysis of the eating habits of patients with severe obesity during the 24-h cycle and investigate a possible relationship between these profiles, the comorbidities, and the psychological status. From the overall evaluation of the chrono-nutritional profiles of 173 patients with severe obesity, four predominant eating patterns were obtained with a refined statistical model. A regression analysis was performed to determine the relationship between chrono-nutritional patterns, medical comorbidities, and psychological status. Profile 1 was the most frequent (46.2%) and characterised by the regular presence of the three main meals. The distribution of the chrono-nutritional profiles did not vary with BMI. Chrono-nutritional profiles affected predominantly psychological variables, with lower performances among chrono-nutritional profiles 3 (to eat during all the 24-h, with nibbling and snacking also during the night) and 4 (like the fourth but without night-eating). This finding could be useful in the assessment and treatment of patients with obesity, allowing the identification of patients with a higher probability of suffering from a psychopathological condition simply by knowing the patients' dietary profiles.

Association between circadian clock gene expressions and meal timing in young and older adults.

Ageing is associated with a decline in circadian clock systems, which correlates with the development of ageing-associated diseases. Chrononutrition is a field of chronobiology that examines the relationship between the timing of meal/nutrition and circadian clock systems. Although there is growing evidence regarding the role of chrononutrition in the prevention of lifestyle and ageing-related diseases, the optimal timing of meal intake to regulate the circadian clock in humans remains unknown. In this study, we investigated the relationship between clock gene expression and meal timing in young and older adults. In this cross-sectional study, we enrolled 51 healthy young men and 35 healthy older men (age, mean±standard deviation: 24 ± 4 and 70 ± 4 y, respectively). Under daily living conditions, beard follicle cells were collected at 4-h intervals over a 24-h period to evaluate clock gene expression. Participants were asked to record the timing of habitual sleep and wake-up, breakfast, lunch, and dinner. From these data, we calculated "From bedtime to breakfast time," "From wake up to first meal time," and "From dinner to bed time." NR1D1 and PER3 expressions in older adults at 06:00 h were significantly higher than those in young adults (P = 0.001). There were significant differences in the peak time for NR1D2 (P = 0.003) and PER3 (P = 0.049) expression between young and older adults. "From bedtime to breakfast time" was significantly longer in older adults than in young adults. In contrast, "From dinner to bed time" was significantly shorter in older adults than in young adults. Moreover, higher rhythmicity of NR1D1 correlated with longer "From bedtime to breakfast time" (r = -0.470, P = 0.002) and shorter "From wake up to first meal time" in young adults (r = 0.302, P = 0.032). Higher rhythmicity of PER3 correlated with longer "From bedtime to breakfast time" in older adults (r = -0.342, P = 0.045). These results suggest that the peak time of clock gene expression in older adults may be phase-advanced compared to that in young adults. In addition, a longer fasting duration from bedtime to breakfast in both young and older adults and earlier intake of meals after waking up in young adults may correlate with robust clock gene expression rhythms.

Differences in Dietary Intake, Eating Occasion Timings and Eating Windows between Chronotypes in Adults Living with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.

Chronotype studies investigating dietary intake, eating occasions (EO) and eating windows (EW) are sparse in people with type 2 Diabetes mellitus (T2DM). This analysis reports data from the CODEC study. The Morningness-Eveningness questionnaire (MEQ) assessed chronotype preference. Diet diaries assessed dietary intake and temporal distribution. Regression analysis assessed whether dietary intake, EW, or EO differed by chronotype. 411 participants were included in this analysis. There were no differences in energy, macronutrient intake or EW between chronotypes. Compared to evening chronotypes, morning and intermediate chronotypes consumed 36.8 (95% CI: 11.1, 62.5) and 20.9 (95% CI: -2.1, 44.1) fewer milligrams of caffeine per day, respectively. Evening chronotypes woke up over an hour and a half later than morning (01:36 95% CI: 01:09, 02:03) and over half an hour later than intermediate chronotypes (00:45 95% CI: 00:21; 01:09. Evening chronotypes went to sleep over an hour and a half later than morning (01:48 95% CI: 01:23; 02:13) and an hour later than intermediate chronotypes (01:07 95% CI: 00:45; 01:30). Evening chronotypes' EOs and last caffeine intake occurred later but relative to their sleep timings. Future research should investigate the impact of chronotype and dietary temporal distribution on glucose control to optimise T2DM interventions.

Effects of the neonatal intensive care environment on circadian health and development of preterm infants.

The circadian system in mammals ensures adaptation to the light-dark cycle on Earth and imposes 24-h rhythmicity on metabolic, physiological and behavioral processes. The central circadian pacemaker is located in the brain and is entrained by environmental signals called Zeitgebers. From here, neural, humoral and systemic signals drive rhythms in peripheral clocks in nearly every mammalian tissue. During pregnancy, disruption of the complex interplay between the mother's rhythmic signals and the fetal developing circadian system can lead to long-term health consequences in the offspring. When an infant is born very preterm, it loses the temporal signals received from the mother prematurely and becomes totally dependent on 24/7 care in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU), where day/night rhythmicity is usually blurred. In this literature review, we provide an overview of the fetal and neonatal development of the circadian system, and short-term consequences of disruption of this process as occurs in the NICU environment. Moreover, we provide a theoretical and molecular framework of how this disruption could lead to later-life disease. Finally, we discuss studies that aim to improve health outcomes after preterm birth by studying the effects of enhancing rhythmicity in light and noise exposure.

Association of Eating Pattern, Chronotype, and Social Jetlag: A Cross-Sectional Study Using Data Accumulated in a Japanese Food-Logging Mobile Health Application.

Chronotype (morningness-eveningness) and social jetlag (SJL; discrepancy in the sleep pattern between the weekday and weekend) are related to eating behavior and health. The association between sleep behavior and the daily macro- and micronutrient eating pattern of each meal (breakfast, lunch, and dinner) have not been discussed well and need more evidence. Here, meal pattern datasets of Japanese participants aged 20-59 years were obtained as averages over 1 month from the data stored in the food-logging app "Asken". We allocated three groups for each chronotype and SJL. Multiple regression analyses revealed that morning chronotype and small SJL were associated with higher total daily intake of potassium, fiber, magnesium, phosphorus, and vitamin K. Breakfast energy intake and consumption of nutrients, including protein, lipid, carbohydrate, and minerals, were higher in the morning chronotype or small SJL. Lunch intake of potassium, cholesterol, fiber, magnesium, and vitamin K was also higher in the morning chronotype or small SJL. Dinner energy intake and nutrient intake of proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, sodium, and saturated fatty acids were lower in the morning chronotype or small SJL. The current data would help to establish a detailed reference for dietary intake which considers eating patterns over a day.

Circadian rhythms, gut microbiota, and diet: Possible implications for health.

AIMS: Over the past years, interest in chrono-nutrition has grown enormously as the fundamental role of circadian rhythms in regulating most physiological and metabolic processes has become clearer. Recently, the influence of circadian rhythms on the gut microbiota (GM) composition has also emerged, as more than half of the total microbial composition fluctuates rhythmically throughout the day. At the same time, other studies have observed that the GM itself synchronises the host's circadian biological clock through signals of a different nature. Therefore, it has been hypothesised that there is a two-way communication between the circadian rhythms of the host and the GM, but researchers have only just begun to identify some of its action mechanisms. The manuscript aim is, therefore, to gather and combine the latest evidence in the field of chrono-nutrition with the more recent research on the GM, in order to investigate their relationship and their potential impact on human health. DATA SYNTHESIS: Considering current evidence, a desynchronization of circadian rhythms is closely associated with an alteration in the abundance and functionality of the gut microbiota with consequent deleterious effects on health, such as increased risk of numerous pathologies, including cardiovascular disease, cancer, irritable bowel disease, and depression. A key role in maintaining the balance between circadian rhythms and GM seems to be attributed to meal-timing and diet quality, as well as to certain microbial metabolites, in particular short-chain fatty acids. CONCLUSIONS: Future studies are needed to decipher the link between the circadian rhythms and specific microbial patterns in relation to different disease frameworks.

Meal-timing patterns and chronic disease prevalence in two representative Austrian studies.

PURPOSE: This study aimed at describing meal-timing patterns using cluster analysis and explore their association with sleep and chronic diseases, before and during COVID-19 mitigation measures in Austria. METHODS: Information was collected in two surveys in 2017 (N = 1004) and 2020 (N = 1010) in representative samples of the Austrian population. Timing of main meals, nighttime fasting interval, last-meal-to-bed time, breakfast skipping and eating midpoint were calculated using self-reported information. Cluster analysis was applied to identify meal-timing clusters. Multivariable-adjusted logistic regression models were used to study the association of meal-timing clusters with prevalence of chronic insomnia, depression, diabetes, hypertension, obesity and self-rated bad health status. RESULTS: In both surveys, median breakfast, lunch and dinner times on weekdays were 7:30, 12:30 and 18:30. One out of four participants skipped breakfast and the median number of eating occasions was 3 in both samples. We observed correlation between the different meal-timing variables. Cluster analysis resulted in the definition of two clusters in each sample (A17 and B17 in 2017, and A20 and B20 in 2020). Clusters A comprised most respondents, with fasting duration of 12-13 h and median eating midpoint between 13:00 and 13:30. Clusters B comprised participants reporting longer fasting intervals and later mealtimes, and a high proportion of breakfast skippers. Chronic insomnia, depression, obesity and self-rated bad health-status were more prevalent in clusters B. CONCLUSIONS: Austrians reported long fasting intervals and low eating frequency. Meal-timing habits were similar before and during the COVID-19-pandemic. Besides individual characteristics of meal-timing, behavioural patterns need to be evaluated in chrono-nutrition epidemiological studies.

Improvement in chrono-nutrition is associated with robust weight loss outcomes: An extension of the feasibility study.

Previously we had demonstrated the development and feasibility of an integrated chrono-nutrition weight reduction program among non-shift workers with morning and evening chronotypes. In this current paper, we described the association between the changes in chrono-nutrition practice and weight loss outcomes upon completing the weight reduction program. A total of 91 overweight/obese non-shift workers participated in the 12-week integrated chrono-nutrition weight reduction program (Age: 39.6 ± 6.3 y; 74.7% women; BMI: 31.2 ± 4.5 kg/m2). All the assessments including anthropometry, dietary, sleep habits, physical activity, and process of change were measured during pre- and post-intervention. Participants who had lost ≥3% of their body weight were categorized as satisfactory weight loss outcome, and those who did not achieve 3% weight loss were categorized as unsatisfactory weight loss. The satisfactory weight loss had greater daily percent energy intake during earlier in the day from protein (Mean difference (MD): +3.2%, 95% CI: 1.6, 4.9, p < .001) and smaller intake from fat during later in the day (MD: -2.6%, 95% CI: -5.1, -0.1, p = .045), earlier last mealtime (MD: -49.5 min, 95% CI: -86.5, -12.6, p = .009) and midpoint of eating (MD: -27.3 min, 95% CI: -46.3, -8.2, p = .006), shorter eating window (-0.8 h, 95% CI: -1.4, -0.1, p = .031) and greater reduction in night eating syndrome score (MD: -2.4, 95% CI: -4.3, -0.5, p = .015) compared to unsatisfactory weight loss outcome. After accounting for potential confounders, the temporal pattern of energy, protein, and fat intake were associated with greater odds of achieving a satisfactory weight loss. The findings suggest a promising role of chrono-nutrition as one of the strategies in weight reduction intervention.

Distribution of energy and macronutrient intakes across eating occasions in European children from 3 to 8 years of age: The EU Childhood Obesity Project Study.

PURPOSE: We aimed to characterize the distribution of energy and macronutrient intakes across eating occasions (EO) in European children from preschool to school age. METHODS: Data from 3-day weighed food records were collected from children at ages 3, 4, 5, 6 and 8 years from Belgium, Germany, Italy, Poland and Spain. Food intakes were assigned to EO based on country-specific daytimes for breakfast, lunch, supper and snacks (morning, afternoon). The average energy and nutrient intakes were expressed as percentage of total energy intake (%E). Nutrients were additionally expressed as percentage per EO (%EEO). Foods were assigned to food groups; variation in intake was calculated via coefficient of variation (CV). We analyzed age trends in diurnal intake using mixed-effects beta regression. RESULTS: The 740 healthy children included in the analysis consumed the largest proportion of daily energy at lunch (31%E ± 8, M ± SD) and supper (26%E ± 8), followed by breakfast (19%E ± 7) and snacks [afternoon (16%E ± 8); morning (8%E ± 7)], with the most variable intake at morning snack (CV = 0.9). The nutrient composition at lunch and supper was highest for fat (36 ± 9%ELunch; 39 ± 11%ESupper) and protein (18 ± 5%ELunch; 18 ± 6%ESupper) and at breakfast and snacks for carbohydrates (54 ± 12%EBreakfast; 62 ± 12%ESnacks). High-sugar content foods were consumed in relatively large proportions at breakfast and snacks. Food intakes varied significantly with age, with lower snack intakes at later ages (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Possibly unhealthy EOs with high-fat intakes and high-sugar-content foods were observed. Changes in nutrient composition of EOs may be beneficial for health. TRIAL REGISTRY: ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT00338689; 19/June/2006.

The interlink between chrono-nutrition and stunting: current insights and future perspectives.

Stunting is the one factor that is responsible for the irretrievable damage to children's mental and physical health. Stunting imitates chronic undernutrition throughout the most extreme critical stages of growth and development of a child in their early life, and due to that stunted child does not completely develop and are too short for their age. Stunting is mainly linked with brain underdevelopment, along with lifelong damaging consequences, comprising weakened mental and learning capacity, deprived performance in school during childhood, and enhanced risks of nutrition linked to chronic long-lasting ailments, such as diabetes, hypertension, diabesity, and obesity in the future. In this review, the authors mainly summarize the latest studies related to chronic nutrition and how it is related to stunting. Optimal nutrition, particularly during pregnancy and the first 24 months of a child's life, is crucial in preventing stunting. Circadian rhythms play a significant role in maternal and fetal health, affecting outcomes such as premature birth and stunting. Maintaining a balanced diet, avoiding late-night carbohydrate-heavy meals during pregnancy, and promoting breastfeeding align with the body's biological clock, which can benefit newborns in various ways. Providing dedicated spaces for breastfeeding in public places is important to support infant health.

Diurnal variations of triglyceride accumulation in mouse and bovine adipocyte-derived cell lines.

Several studies have suggested a strong interaction between the circadian clock and lipid metabolism in mammals. The circadian clock is driven by endogenous cyclic gene expression patterns, commonly referred to as clock genes, and transcription-translation negative feedback loops. Clock genes regulate the transcription of some lipid metabolism-related genes; however, the relationship between the circadian clock and triglyceride (TG) accumulation at the cellular level remains unclear. Here, we evaluated rhythms of intracellular TG accumulation levels as well as the expression of clock genes and lipid metabolism-related genes for 54 h in mouse and bovine adipose-derived cell cultures. To the best of our knowledge, this study represents the first report demonstrating that TG accumulation exhibits diurnal variations, with the pattern differing among cell types. Furthermore, we found that expression of clock genes and corresponding lipid metabolism-related genes exhibited circadian rhythms. Our results suggest that the cellular clock regulates lipid metabolism-related genes to relate circadian rhythms of TG accumulation in each cell type. We anticipate that the amount of fat stored depends on the timing of the supply of glucose-the precursor of fat. The findings of this study will contribute to the advancement of chrono-nutrition.

Timing of Food/Nutrient Intake and Its Health Benefits.

Growing evidence from animal and human research indicates the importance of homeostatic regulation of the circadian clock in the body. Dysfunction of the circadian clock caused by jet lag or night-shift work increases the risk of obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer. Thus, it is important to consider the circadian clock function for prevention of these diseases. Chrono-nutrition is a recently established research field that examines the relationship between the timing of food/nutrition and health. It is well known that breakfast skipping and late-night meals are independent risk factors for diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. Chrono-nutrition also advocates research on nutrition and the biological clock and the social implementation of the research. Breakfast can advance the phase of the peripheral clock, but late dinner can delay it. Moreover, many functional foods and nutrients, such as caffeine and polyphenols, regulate the circadian clock. In this review, we discuss how diet/nutrition entrains the peripheral clock and the relationship between meal timing and health outcomes. In addition, the effects of time-restricted feeding/eating on metabolism and related diseases are discussed. Lastly, we introduce "personalized chrono-nutrition," that uses recent progress of technology such as sensors and the artificial intelligence/internet of things (AI/IOT) to promote personalized chrono-nutritional suggestions and health systems.