Conspiring under threats! An investigation of associations between COVID-19 health and economic threats and conspiracy beliefs in Italy and Argentina.

Theory and research suggest that threats aroused by a given crisis lead to conspiracy beliefs. Although crises involve the arise of multiple threats (e.g., economic, safety, etc.) diversely affecting various needs and outcomes (i.e., cognition, emotion and behaviour), no research has yet focused on specific relations that different threats may have with the endorsement of conspiracy beliefs. In this study, we distinguished between health and economic threats aroused by the COVID-19 pandemic, and we tested their associations with conspiracy beliefs. Findings from two correlational studies conducted in Italy and Argentina showed that while COVID-19's economic threat was positively and consistently related to conspiracy beliefs, the relationship between COVID-19's health threat and conspiracy beliefs was negative and significant in the Italian sample and non-significant in the Argentinian sample. Results are discussed within the context of the effects of multiple threats elicited by crises on conspiracy beliefs.

The impact of conspiracy theories and vaccine knowledge on vaccination intention: a longitudinal study / O impacto de teorias da conspiração e do conhecimento sobre vacinas na intenção de vacinação: um estudo longitudinal

Abstract In this study, we analyzed associations between vaccination knowledge, vaccination intention, political ideology, and belief in conspiracy theories before and during the 2020 Sars-Cov-2 pandemic in the Brazilian population. It was conducted a longitudinal study into three data collections. Participants responded to the Flexible Inventory of Conspiracy Suspicions (FICS), questionnaires measuring their knowledge, and opinion about vaccines, and sociodemographic data. The results were: the greater the belief in conspiracy theories about vaccines, the lesser the intention to get vaccinated, the vaccine knowledge, and the attitudes towards vaccine investment. Religious, prone to right-wing politics, parents, and older people scored more for FICS than atheists/agnostics, and younger people. From 2019 to 2020 the vaccination intention and vaccination investment did not differ, showing that people did not change their opinion about vaccines regardless of personal experience or the pandemic scenario. The research strengthened the relevance of health education as a milestone for public health and protection from dangerous conspiracy theories.

Resumo Neste estudo, analisamos associações entre conhecimento sobre vacinação, intenção de vacinação, ideologia política e crença em teorias da conspiração antes e durante a pandemia da Sars-Cov-2 de 2020 na população brasileira. Foi realizado um estudo longitudinal em três coletas de dados. Os participantes responderam ao Inventário Flexível de Suspeitas de Conspiração (FICS), a questionários medindo seu conhecimento e opinião sobre vacinas e dados sociodemográficos. Os resultados obtidos foram: quanto maior a crença em teorias da conspiração sobre vacinas, menor a intenção de se vacinar, o conhecimento da vacina e as atitudes em relação ao investimento em vacinas. Religiosos, propensos à política de direita, pais e idosos pontuaram mais para FICS do que ateus/agnósticos e pessoas mais jovens. De 2019 a 2020, a intenção de vacinação e o investimento em vacinação não diferiram, mostrando que as pessoas não mudaram de opinião sobre as vacinas, independentemente da experiência pessoal ou de um cenário de pandemia. Nossa pesquisa sugere fortalecer a educação em saúde como um marco para a saúde pública e proteção de perigosas teorias da conspiração.

Intention to receive the monkeypox vaccine and its psychological and sociodemographic predictors: a cross-sectional survey in the general population of Peru.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to identify predictors of intention to be vaccinated against Monkeypox (Mpox) in a sample of Peruvian citizens.  METHODS: A set of sociodemographic and psychological predictors were used, such as sex, sexual orientation, educational level, previous diagnosis of COVID-19, marital status, complete vaccination against COVID-19, employment status, living with vulnerable people, presence of chronic disease, area of residence, perceived usefulness of COVID-19 vaccines, fear of Mpox, conspiracy beliefs about Mpox, among others. A total of 472 Peruvian adults participated, selected by non-probabilistic snowball convenience sampling. A sociodemographic survey, the Mpox Fear Scale, was used. Conspiracy Beliefs about Mpox was assessed using three questions created specifically for this study. For inferential purposes, simple ordinal regressions ("crude models") were performed between each factor and the outcome.  RESULTS: Regarding their intention to be vaccinated against Mpox, more than 60% expressed clear approval. Being non-heterosexual, having greater emotional fear of Mpox, and perceiving some potential for this disease to become the next pandemic were related to greater intention to vaccinate. On the other hand, being older, having low perceived usefulness of COVID-19 vaccines, and having higher conspiracy beliefs about Mpox were associated with lower intention to vaccinate.  CONCLUSION: The study provides initial information for future research seeking to better analyze Mpox vaccination intention. In addition, cross-sectional data are provided that can be used to develop public health policies that target subgroups with low prevalence of intention to vaccinate against Mpox.

Relationship Between Fear of COVID-19, Conspiracy Beliefs About Vaccines and Intention to Vaccinate Against COVID-19: A Cross-National Indirect Effect Model in 13 Latin American Countries.

The present study explored the predictive capacity of fear of COVID-19 on the intention to be vaccinated against COVID-19 and the influence in this relationship of conspiracy beliefs as a possible mediating psychological variable, in 13 Latin American countries. A total of 5779 people recruited through non-probabilistic convenience sampling participated. To collect information, we used the Fear of COVID-19 Scale, Vaccine conspiracy beliefs Scale-COVID-19 and a single item of intention to vaccinate. A full a priori Structural Equation Model was used; whereas, cross-country invariance was performed from increasingly restricted structural models. The results indicated that, fear of COVID-19 positively predicts intention to vaccinate and the presence of conspiracy beliefs about COVID-19 vaccines. The latter negatively predicted intention to vaccinate against COVID-19. Besides, conspiracy beliefs about COVID-19 vaccines had an indirect effect on the relationship between fear of COVID-19 and intention to vaccinate against COVID-19 in the 13 countries assessed. Finally, the cross-national similarities of the mediational model among the 13 participating countries are strongly supported. The study is the first to test a cross-national mediational model across variables in a large number of Latin American countries. However, further studies with other countries in other regions of the world are needed.

From Conspiracy to Hesitancy: The Longitudinal Impact of COVID-19 Vaccine Conspiracy Theories on Perceived Vaccine Effectiveness.

The embrace of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccine conspiracies has been linked to vaccine hesitancy. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between COVID-19 vaccine conspiracy theories and perceived vaccine effectiveness. The study utilized a longitudinal follow-up study in which adults in Chile completed surveys in December 2020 (T1) and May 2021 (T2). The psychometric properties of the five-item instrument on conspiracy theories for the COVID-19 vaccine were evaluated using data from T1 (n = 578). A confirmatory one-factor structure with suitable indicators of reliability was found. The longitudinal analysis (n = 292) revealed that conspiracy theories about the COVID-19 vaccine in T1 were associated with lower beliefs in its effectiveness in T2. However, no significant association was found between beliefs in effectiveness in T1 and conspiracy theories in T2. The study suggests that beliefs in conspiracy theories may temporally precede beliefs in vaccine effectiveness for COVID-19. The results have implications for strategies to address vaccine conspiracy beliefs and their implementation at the public policy level.

Relationship Between Fear of Monkeypox and Intention to be Vaccinated Against Monkeypox in a Peruvian Sample. The Mediating Role of Conspiracy Beliefs About Monkeypox.

The present study evaluated the predictive capacity of fear of Monkeypox (MPX) on the intention to be vaccinated against MPX and the influence of conspiracy beliefs as a mediating variable in this relationship in 516 Peruvian sample with an average age of 27.10 years participated. Monkeypox Fear Scale, MPX Conspiracy Beliefs Scale and a single item of intention to be vaccinated against MPX were used. Statistical analyses have included estimation of descriptive statistics for all variables in the model tested and Structural Equation Modeling to predict intention to be vaccinated against monkeypox. It has been found that fear has a positive impact on conspiracy beliefs about MPX and intention to be vaccinated against MPX. Finally, conspiracy beliefs are negatively related to intention to be vaccinated. As for indirect effects, both are statistically significant. The model explains 11.4% of the variance in beliefs and 19.1% in intention to be vaccinated. It is concluded that fear of MPX played an important role, both directly and indirectly, in the intention to be vaccinated against MPX, having conspiratorial beliefs about MPX as a mediating variable. The results have important implications for public health practices aimed at combating doubts about MPX vaccination.

COVID-19 as an undesirable political issue: Conspiracy beliefs and intolerance of uncertainty predict adhesion to prevention measures.

Conspiracy theories thrive in moments of crises because they provide straightforward answers that assist individuals in coping with threats. The COVID-19 outbreak is such a crisis and is boosted by the political turmoil related to the politicization of the pandemic in some countries. To assess the role of political partisanship, intolerance of uncertainty (IU), and conspiracy beliefs in our two criterion variables (support for COVID-19 prevention measures and compliance with social distancing), we applied an online questionnaire to 662 participants. Our results indicate direct effects of political partisanship on support for COVID-19 prevention measures and non-compliance with social distancing while IU has not directly affected any of them. We have also found a significant effect of political partisanship on conspiracy theory dimensions involving personal wellbeing (PW) and control of information (CI) but not government malfeasance (GM) ones. Moreover, beliefs in CI theories predicted non-compliance with social distancing. Intolerance of uncertainty, on its turn, predicted the three dimensions of conspiracy beliefs. As to interaction effects, belief in GM, PW, and CI conspiracy theories moderated the effect of political partisanship on support for COVID-19 prevention measures whereas only belief in GM and PW theories moderated the effect of IU on past non-compliance with social distancing. Overall, our results suggest the relevance of diminishing politicization around the virus, providing basic scientific knowledge to the general population, and assisting individuals in coping with uncertainty. Besides, these findings provide insights into developing information campaigns to instruct the population to cope with the pandemic, producing behavioral change at societal and individual levels.

Network analysis of the relationships between conspiracy beliefs towards COVID-19 vaccine and symptoms of fear of COVID-19 in a sample of latin american countries.

The present study examined how conspiracy beliefs about COVID-19 vaccines specifically relate to symptoms of fear of COVID-19 in a sample of four South American countries. A total of 1785 people from Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru participated, responding to a sociodemographic survey, the Fear of COVID-19 scale (FCV-19 S) and the Vaccine Conspiracy Beliefs Scale-COVID-19 (VCBS-COVID-19). Network analysis identified the most important symptoms of fear and conspiracy beliefs about COVID-19 vaccines (nodes) and the associations between them (edges). In addition, the robustness of the network of these indicators of centrality and the possible differences in the structure and connectivity of the networks between the four countries were evaluated. The results suggest that the nodes with the highest centrality were items 2 and 5 of the FCV-19 S and item 2 of the VCBS-COVID-19. Likewise, item 6 is the belief that most predicts conspiracy beliefs about vaccines against COVID-19; while item 6 was the symptom that most predicts fear of COVID-19. The findings strongly support cross-cultural similarities in the networks across the four countries rather than differences. Although it was expected that a higher presence of symptoms of fear of COVID-19 may lead people to compensate for their fear by believing in conspiratorial ideas about vaccines and, consequently, rejecting the COVID-19 vaccine, the results do not clearly show this relationship. This could lead other researchers to generate evidence to explain the differences between Latin American countries and countries in other contexts in terms of vaccination rates. This evidence could be useful to develop policies favoring vaccination against COVID-19 that are more contextualized to the Latin American region, characterized by social instability and economic recession during the pandemic.

Predictors of COVID-19 Vaccine Intention: Evidence from Chile, Mexico, and Colombia.

(1) Background: Although the evidence is consistent that vaccines for COVID-19 effectively prevent severe illness or death, the rapid development of vaccines has led to increased beliefs about possible negative consequences and conspiracy theories about the vaccine. Several factors influence whether or not people decide to be vaccinated. Some studies suggest that our perception of what significant others do and think influences our behavior. (2) Methods: This study evaluates the predictive role of beliefs about negative consequences of the COVID-19 vaccine, conspiracy beliefs about this vaccine, and social influence on the intention to vaccinate against COVID-19 in three Latin American and Caribbean countries: Chile, Mexico, and Colombia. Using convenience sampling, 2075 adults from Chile (48.3%), Mexico (27.6%), and Colombia (24.6%) participated by answering an online questionnaire with variables of interest. (3) Results: Despite the differences between countries, the results showed that the proposed model is invariant and explains between 56-66% of the COVID-19 vaccination intent. Specifically, controlling for age, socioeconomic status, political orientation, and educational level, we found that beliefs about the negative consequences of the COVID-19 vaccine were the main predictor followed by social influence. Beliefs in conspiracy theories did not predict vaccination intention (4) Conclusions: Considering these variables in campaigns to boost vaccination intention is discussed.

Design and Cross-Cultural Invariance of the COVID-19 Vaccine Conspiracy Beliefs Scale (COVID-VCBS) in 13 Latin American Countries.

Aims: Over the past 2 years, the vaccine conspiracy beliefs construct has been used in a number of different studies. These publications have assessed the determinants and outcomes of vaccine conspiracy beliefs using, in some cases, pooled data from different countries, and compared the results across these contexts. However, studies often do not consider measurement invariance as a necessary requirement for comparative analyses. Therefore, the aim of this study was to develop and evaluate the cross-cultural MI of the COVID-19 Vaccine Conspiracy Beliefs Scale (COVID-VCBS) in 12 Latin American countries. Methods: Confirmatory factor analysis, item response theory analysis and alignment method were applied to test measurement invariance in a large number of groups. Results: The COVID-VCBS showed robust psychometric properties and measurement invariance for both factor loadings and crosstabs. Also, a higher level of acceptance of conspiracy beliefs about vaccines is necessary to respond to higher response categories. Similarly, greater acceptance of conspiracy beliefs about COVID-19 vaccines was related to a lower intention to be vaccinated. Conclusion: The results allow for improved understanding of conspiracy beliefs about COVID-19 vaccines in the countries assessed; furthermore, they provide researchers and practitioners with an invariant measure that they can use in cross-cultural studies in Latin America. However, further studies are needed to test invariance in other countries, with the goal of developing a truly international measure of conspiracy beliefs about COVID-19 vaccines.

Impacto das Teorias da Conspiração em tempos de COVID-19: Uma Revisão da Literatura / The Impact of Conspiracy Theories in Times of COVID-19: A Literature Review / Impacto de las Teorías de la Conspiración en tiempos de COVID-19: Una Revisión de la Literatura

Na conjuntura atual, a COVID- 19 representa uma séria ameaça ao bem-estar físico e psicológico da comunidade global. Por se tratar de um vírus com elevado potencial de transmissão, as orientações da Organização Mundial de Saúde para reduzir sua proliferação envolvem medidas sanitárias e ações de isolamento social. Dentre os aspectos de cunho psicológico que podem afetar as decisões de conformidade com as ações de isolamento social, pode-se consi-derar a crença em teorias da conspiração. Considerando a influência que tais teorias exercem sobre o comportamento das pessoas, o presente artigo teórico teve como objetivo delinear o panorama vigente sobre o estudo das crenças em teorias da conspiração no contexto da pandemia da COVID-19, bem como discutir o impacto que as mesmas exercem sobre a saúde e a conduta dos indivíduos. Em suma, este trabalho fornece subsídios para a ampliação dessa discussão a nível teórico e para o desenvolvimento de estudos empíricos consi-derando a realidade brasileira.

In the actual scenario, COVID-19 represents a serious threat to the physical and psychological well-being of the global population. The new coronavirus (SARS-COV-2) is highly contagious and easily transmitted; in this sense, the guidelines provided by the World Health Organization (WHO) to reduce this contamination involve sanitary actions and measures such as social isolation. Amongst the psychological aspects that might affect decisions on whether to follow such measures, we can highlight conspiracy theories beliefs. Considering the influence that such theories have on people's behaviors, the current theo-retical paper aims to provide an overview of studies on beliefs in conspiracy theories in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as to discuss the impact that they have over people's health and behavior. In summary, this paper provides resources to amplify this discussion on a theoretical level and to develop empirical studies considering the Brazilian reality.

En la coyuntura actual, la COVID-19 representa una seria amenaza para el bienestar físico y psicológico de la comunidad global. El nuevo coronavirus (SARS-COV-2) tiene un alto potencial de transmisión, en este sentido, los lineamientos de la Organización Mundial de la Salud para reducir su prolife-ración involucran medidas sanitarias y acciones de aislamiento social. Entre los aspectos psicológicos que pueden afectar las decisiones para cumplir con las acciones de aislamiento social, se puede considerar la creencia en teorías de la conspiración. Considerando la influencia que tales teorías tienen en el comportamiento de las personas, este artículo teórico tuvo como objetivo esbozar el panorama imperante en el estudio de las creencias en las teorías conspirativas en el contexto de la pandemia de COVID-19, así como el impacto que tienen en la salud y la conducta de las personas. En definitiva, el trabajo brinda apoyo para ampliar las discusiones a nivel teórico y para el desarrollo de estudios empíricos considerando la realidad brasileña.

What Is the Support for Conspiracy Beliefs About COVID-19 Vaccines in Latin America? A Prospective Exploratory Study in 13 Countries.

Conspiracy theories about COVID-19 began to emerge immediately after the first news about the disease and threaten to prolong the negative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic by limiting people's willingness of receiving a life-saving vaccine. In this context, this study aimed to explore the variation of conspiracy beliefs regarding COVID-19 and the vaccine against it in 5779 people living in 13 Latin American countries (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela) according to sociodemographic variables such as gender, age, educational level and source of information about COVID-19. The study was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic between September 15 and October 25, 2021. The Spanish-language COVID-19 Vaccine Conspiracy Beliefs Scale (ECCV-COVID) and a sociodemographic survey were used. The results indicate that, in most countries, women, people with a lower educational level and those who receive information about the vaccine and COVID-19 from family/friends are more supportive of conspiracy ideas regarding the COVID-19 vaccine. In the case of age, the results vary by country. The analysis of the responses to each of the questions of the ECCV-COVID reveals that, in general, the countries evaluated are mostly in some degree of disagreement or indecision regarding conspiratorial beliefs about COVID-19 vaccines. The findings could help open further study which could support prevention and treatment efforts during the COVID-19 pandemic.

COVID-19 Related Stresses, Conspiracy Beliefs, Uncertainty, and Non-adherence to Safety Guidelines.

Introduction: Inconsistent use of protective preventive measures and nonadherence of the guidelines set by the World Health Organization regarding the coronavirus are associated with increased morbidity and mortality, as well as increased health care costs. Objective: The purpose of this study was to examine the role of COVID-19 related worries, conspiracy beliefs, and uncertainty in adherence to preventative measures in Iran. Method: In a large survey with data collected online from a volunteer sample of 599 individuals, assessments were made of the distress associated with the anticipated potential consequences associated with the COVID-19 pandemic and the lockdown, extent of agreement with conspiracy beliefs, level of situation-specific uncertainty, and self-reports of compliance with preventive measures. Data were analyzed to explore paths leading to nonadherence to safety guidelines proposed by the medical authorities. Results: A large majority of individuals report significant distress and worry associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. Results indicate that increasing levels of situation-specific uncertainty intolerance, as well as conspiracy beliefs regarding the coronavirus, are associated with non-compliance with the advised protocols. Specifically, the results show that worries related to the COVID-19 pandemic are linked to non-compliance with preventive measures through conspiracy beliefs and feelings of uncertainty associated with the COVID-19 situation even after gender, education, and perceived socioeconomic status were controlled. Conclusions: Findings imply that emotional exhaustion is likely to have set in and become counterproductive as people choose to violate safety guidelines. The authors discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these results.

Introducción: el uso inconsistente de medidas preventivas de protección y la falta de adherencia de las directrices de la Organización Mundial de la Salud con respecto al coronavirus está asociado con el aumento de la morbilidad y la mortalidad, así como el de los costos de atención de la salud. Objetivo: El propósito de este estudio fue examinar el papel de las preocupaciones relacionadas con COVID-19, creencias de conspiración e incertidumbre en adherencia a las medidas preventivas en Irán. Método: Se aplicó una encuesta virtualmente. La muestra fue de 599 personas voluntarias. Se evaluó la angustia asociada con las posibles consecuencias anticipadas de la pandemia de COVID-19 y el bloqueo, el grado de acuerdo con las creencias de conspiración, el nivel de incertidumbre específica de la situación y los autoinformes de cumplimiento de medidas preventivas. Resultados: La mayoría de las personas reportan angustia y preocupación significativas asociadas con la pandemia de COVID-19. Los resultados muestran que las preocupaciones provenientes de la pandemia de COVID-19 están relacionadas con el incumplimiento de las medidas preventivas, a través de creencias de conspiración y sentimientos de incertidumbre asociados a la situación de COVID-19, incluso después de tomar en cuenta el género, la educación y el nivel socioeconómico percibido. Conclusiones: Los hallazgos implican que es probable que elegir la violación de las reglas de seguridad se ha vuelto contraproducente y muy probablemente ha causado agotamiento emocional. Los autores discuten las implicaciones teóricas y prácticas de estos resultados.

Comunicación de la verdad en oncología desde la visión de la bioética médica / Communication of the truth in oncology from the perspective of medical bioethics

RESUMEN Introducción: La relación médico paciente en oncología se basa en el respeto por la vida, unido de forma constante en la aceptación de la vulnerabilidad y al reconocimiento de la inevitabilidad de la muerte. La comunicación de la verdad, particularmente cuando se trata de informar malas noticias, es una situación estresante, difícil y que demanda la adecuada preparación del personal de la salud. Objetivo: Comentar sobre los fundamentos de la comunicación de la verdad en las enfermedades oncológicas y los puntos relevantes en la relación médico paciente. Desarrollo: Comunicar la verdad entraña varios dilemas éticos en oncología y a veces la información se maneja incorrectamente por el equipo médico. El consenso es no mentir, sin normas rígidas, "ocultar la verdad" y la "conspiración del silencio"; no son del todo errados, el profesional de la salud debe respetar el derecho del paciente de estar informado y a su autonomía, lo que facilitará la toma de decisiones. La relación médico paciente ya cede el terreno a formas más personalistas de relación y el respeto a la libertad individual. Conclusiones: Los fundamentos de la comunicación de la verdad en la enfermedad oncológica, se basan en los principios de la ética y bioética médica, la verdad garantiza una comunicación transparente y enriquecedora. Los puntos relevantes de la RMP consisten en lograr la adecuada alianza terapéutica entre el médico y paciente, en la mejora de su calidad de vida.

ABSTRACT Introduction: The doctor-patient relationship in oncology is based on respect for life, constantly linked to the acceptance of vulnerability and the recognition of the inevitability of death. The communication of the truth, particularly when it comes to reporting bad news, is a stressful and difficult situation that requires the proper preparation of health personnel. Objective: To comment the fundamentals of the communication of the truth in oncological diseases and the relevant points in the doctor-patient relationship. Development: Communicating the truth involves several ethical dilemmas in oncology and sometimes the medical team handles the information incorrectly. The consensus is not to lie, without rigid rules, "hide the truth" and the "conspiracy of silence"; are not entirely wrong, the health professional must respect the patient's right to be informed and their autonomy, which will facilitate decision-making. The doctor-patient relationship is already giving way to more personal forms of relationship and respect for individual freedom. Conclusions: The fundamentals of the communication of the truth in oncological disease are based on the principles of medical ethics and bioethics, the truth guarantees a transparent and enriching communication. The relevant points of the doctor patient relationship consist of achieving the adequate therapeutic alliance between the doctor and the patient, in order to improve their quality of life.

Escala de Crenças Gerais Conspiratórias (ECGC): desenvolvimento e evidências psicométricas / General Conspiracy Belief Scale (Cgbs): development and psychometric evidence / Escala de Creencias Conspiratorias Generales (ECGC): desarrollo y evidencias psicométricas

O presente estudo teve como objetivo desenvolver a Escala de Crenças Gerais Conspiratórias (ECGC), reunindo evidências de sua validade fatorial e consistência interna. Para tal, foram realizados dois estudos. No Estudo 1 (n =229), uma análise de componentes principais permitiu identificar uma estrutura com cinco componentes, cada um reunindo três itens: manipulação farmacêutica (α = 0,74), conspirações globais (α = 0,80), manipulação de grupos secretos (α = 0,80), encobrimento de contato extraterrestre (α = 0,92) e controle de informações (α = 0,60). No Estudo 2 (n = 229), a análise fatorial confirmatória indicou que o modelo que melhor se ajustou aos dados foi o bifator (CFI = 0,96, TLI = 0,94, RMSEA = 0,06). Conclui-se que a versão final da ECGC, formada por 15 itens, apresenta evidências psicométricas adequadas para avaliar crenças em teorias conspiratórias, podendo ser utilizada em pesquisas no contexto brasileiro. (AU)

The present study aimed to develop the General Conspiracy Belief Scale (ECGC), seeking evidence of its factorial validity and internal consistency. For this, two studies were carried out. In Study 1 (n=229) an analysis of the main components identified a five factor structure, each composed of three items: pharmaceutical manipulation (α=.74), global conspiracies (α=.80), manipulation by secret groups (α=.80), extraterrestrial contact cover ups (α=.92) and information control (α=.60). In Study 2 (n=229) the confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the bifactor model best fitted the data (CFI=.96, TLI=.94, RMSEA=.06). The final version of the ECGC, composed of 15 items, presents adequate psychometric evidence to evaluate beliefs in conspiracy theories, which can be used in research in the Brazilian context. (AU)

El presente estudio tuvo como objetivo desarrollar la Escala de Creencia Conspiratorias Generales (ECGC), reuniendo evidencias de su validez factorial y consistencia interna. Por lo que, se llevaron a cabo dos estudios. En el Estudio 1 (n = 229), un análisis de los componentes principales permitió identificar una estructura con cinco componentes, cada uno reunió tres elementos: manipulación farmacéutica (α = 0.74), conspiraciones globales (α = 0.80), manipulación de grupos secretos (α = 0.80), encubrimiento de contacto extraterrestre (α = 0.92) y control de información (α = 0.60). En el Estudio 2 (n = 229) el análisis factorial confirmatorio indicó que el modelo que mejor se ajusta a los datos es el bifactor (CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.06). Se concluye que la versión final del ECGC, formada por 15 ítems, presenta evidencias psicométricas adecuadas para evaluar las creencias en las teorías conspiratorias, y puede utilizarse en investigaciones en el contexto brasileño. (AU)

Belief in Conspiracy Theories About COVID-19 Amongst Venezuelan Students: A Pilot Study / Creencias en Teorías de la Conspiración acerca de la COVID-19 entre los Estudiantes Venezolanos: Un Estudio Piloto

Abstract Although researchers have not satisfactorily tracked the origins of COVID-19, there are no indications that this virus has been engineered by human beings. Yet, conspiracy theories blaming either the United States or China, are increasingly popular. For a greater research project to be developed in the future, a pilot study was done, where 165 Venezuelan students were asked in a survey to rate their agreement with conspiracy theories about COVID-19. Although the majority of subjects were skeptical of these claims, the percentage of acceptance of COVID-19 conspiracy theories was still fairly high, if compared to other medical conspiracy theories. Educational level was not a significant predictive factor in acceptance of these conspiracy theories. Acceptance of other conspiracy theories has a significant relation, but only if they cohere with ideological positioning in the Venezuelan context. Likewise, ethnicity also correlated with belief in COVID-19 conspiracy theories, but again, mediated by political alignments in the Venezuelan context.

Resumen A pesar de que los investigadores no han ubicado satisfactoriamente los orígenes de la COVID-19, no hay indicaciones de que el virus haya sido diseñado por seres humanos. No obstante, cada vez son más populares las teorías de conspiración que culpan a EE. UU. o China. Para un proyecto de investigación de mayor envergadura que será desarrollado en el futuro, se hizo un estudio piloto, en el que a 165 estudiantes venezolanos se les pidió en una encuesta que evaluaran su nivel de acuerdo con algunas teorías de conspiración respecto a la COVID-19. A pesar de que la mayoría se mantuvo escéptica respecto a estos alegatos, el porcentaje de aceptación de teorías de conspiración sobre COVID-19 es alto, si se compara con otras teorías de conspiración relacionadas con la medicina. La educación no fue un factor predictivo significativo a favor de la aceptación de estas teorías de conspiración. La aceptación de otras teorías de conspiración tuvo una relación significativa, pero solo si mantienen coherencia con posturas ideológicas en el contexto venezolano. Del mismo modo, la etnicidad también tuvo una correlación con la creencia en las teorías de conspiración sobre la COVID-19, pero una vez más esto estuvo mediado por alineaciones políticas en el contexto venezolano.

Crenças em teorias da conspiração: Uma aproximação desde a Psicologia Social / Beliefs in conspiracy theories: An approach from Social Psychology

Diante da incerteza, não clareza ou incompreensão dos fatos, sobretudo em contextos de instabilidade política e social (e.g., pandemia de doenças contagiosas), as teorias da conspiração se consolidam como a criação de uma explicação "alternativa" ou "fantasiosa" para fatos que normalmente contrariam a versão oficial e politicamente correta de determinado acontecimento. Os criadores e adeptos de tais teorias, em geral, apresentam olhar cético acerca de algumas explicações dadas a eventos controlados por instituições e pessoas poderosas, atribuindo um outro significado interpretativo diverso ao acontecimento. Mediante as informações supracitadas, o presente artigo tem como objetivo introduzir a temática das crenças em teorias da conspiração no contexto da Psicologia Social. Neste sentido, inicialmente buscou-se abordar as motivações associadas ao endosso dessas teorias, mostrando como a Psicologia Social tem estudado esse fenômeno, além de descrever os principais instrumentos utilizados para sua avaliação e seus correlatos. Procurou-se, ao final deste artigo, oferecer sugestões de pesquisas que poderão ser levadas a cabo no contexto brasileiro, mostrando o papel dessas crenças, por exemplo, no contexto político vigente.

Faced with uncertainty, lack of clarity or misunderstanding of the facts, especially in contexts of political and social instability (eg, a contagious disease pandemic), conspiracy theories consolidate themselves as the creation of an "alternative" or "fanciful" explanation for facts that they usually run counter to the official and politically correct version of a given event. The creators and supporters of such theories, in general, present a skeptical look about some explanations given to events controlled by institutions and powerful people, attributing another interpretive meaning to the event. Based on the aforementioned information, this article aims to introduce the theme of beliefs in conspiracy theories in the context of Social Psychology. In this sense, we initially sought to address the motivations associated with the endorsement of these theories, showing how Social Psychology has studied this phenomenon, in addition to describing the main instruments used for its assessment and their correlates. At the end of this article, we sought to offer research suggestions that could be carried out in the Brazilian context, showing the role of these beliefs, for example, in the current political context.

The danger of denialism: lessons from the Brazilian pandemic.

BACKGROUND: Scientific denialism has always had harmful consequences for humanity, but with the advent of the pandemic these effects seem to have been accentuated. MAIN BODY: Unwillingness to accept the facts about the COVID-19 pandemic ascertained by scientists and public health authorities has led to widespread scientific denialism, including the emergence of conspiracy theories of all sorts. Examples are diverse, reaching both developed and developing countries, arriving through populist leaders and the spread of conspiracy theories through social media. SHORT CONCLUSION: It is important to pay attention to the risk of the extremes of this denialism and the possible repercussions, especially in countries that have leaders who agree with these conceptions, such as Brazil and the USA.

Bringing political psychology into the study of populism.

Although it is true that populism is a contested concept in the social sciences, there is increasing consensus around the use of an ideational definition of populism within the political science literature. This definition has the advantage of providing a clear concept that can be employed to empirically study not only the supply side but also the demand side of the populist phenomenon. Not by chance, an increasing number of scholars are working with a set of survey items to measure the presence and relevance of populist ideas at the mass level, something that is usually conceived of as populist attitudes. Despite the incremental study of populist attitudes in political science, only very limited links with the political psychology literature have been established so far. In this short piece, I address this shortcoming by discussing two avenues for further research on populism that seek to promote much-needed dialogue between comparative politics and political psychology: political identities and conspiracy theories. This article is part of the theme issue 'The political brain: neurocognitive and computational mechanisms'.

Crenças em teorias da conspiração em estudantes universitários: Uma explicação a partir dos traços de personalidade

Resumo: O presente estudo buscou investigar a relação entre os traços de personalidade e as crenças em teorias da conspiração. Para tal, contou-se com a participação de 205 estudantes universitários (Midade = 21.7; 56.6% do sexo feminino), os quais responderam a Escala de Crenças Gerais Conspiratórias (ECGC), o Questionário dos Cinco Grandes Fatores de Personalidade (ICGFO) e perguntas demográficas. Os resultados indicaram que tais crenças estão associadas, principalmente com os traços de conscienciosidade e abertura à mudança. Concluiu-se que os traços de personalidade podem ser uma variável importante para explicar o endosso as crenças em teorias da conspiração, sobretudo para aqueles indivíduos que se sentem cognitivamente ameaçados e buscam criar explicações alternativas a fim de reduzir o sentimento de instabilidade e desorganização. Nesta visão, as teorias da conspiração ajudariam os indivíduos a dar sentido a um mundo que foge de seu controle, oferecendo explicações aparentemente coerentes para eventos sociais complexos.

Resumen: El presente estudio buscó investigar la relación entre los rasgos de personalidad y las creencias en las teorías de conspiración. Con este fin, participaron 205 estudiantes universitarios (Midade = 21.7; 56.6% mujeres), quienes respondieron la Escala de Creencia de Conspiración General (ECGC), el Cuestionario de los Cinco Grandes Factores de Personalidad (ICGFO) y preguntas demográficas. Los resultados indicaron que tales creencias están asociadas, principalmente, con los rasgos de responsabilidad y apertura a la experiencia. Se concluyó que los rasgos de personalidad pueden ser una variable importante para explicar el respaldo de las creencias en las teorías de conspiración, especialmente para aquellos individuos que se sienten amenazados cognitivamente y buscan crear explicaciones alternativas para reducir la sensación de inestabilidad y desorganización. Desde este punto de vista, las teorías de conspiración ayudarían a las personas a dar sentido a un mundo más allá de su control, ofreciendo explicaciones aparentemente coherentes para eventos sociales complejos.

Abstract: The present study sought to investigate the relationship between personality traits and beliefs in conspiracy theories. For this purpose, we counted with the participation of 205 university students (Mage= 21.7; 56.6% female), who answered the Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale (GCBS), the Five Factor model (FFM) and demographic questions. The results indicated that such beliefs are associated, mainly with the traits of conscientiousness and openness to change. It was concluded that personality traits can be an important variable to explain the endorsement of beliefs in conspiracy theories, especially for those individuals who feel cognitively threatened and seek to create alternative explanations in order to reduce the feeling of instability and disorganization. In this view, conspiracy theories would help individuals make sense of world beyond their control, offering seemingly coherent explanations for complex social events.