Baby bump? Birth month, family income, and early childhood development.

Federal and state laws in the U.S. provide families with babies born just before the end of the year with thousands of dollars in tax savings. Because this income windfall is realized during the first few months of a newborn's life, we assess whether babies born in December experience developmental advantages in early childhood compared to those born right after the New Year. Using data from the Child Development Supplement of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics and the Children of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, we implement a regression discontinuity design that exploits variation in birth timing. We first illustrate that the tax savings received by families with end of year babies are substantial. We then show that while children born in December have a weight disadvantage at birth compared to those born in January, they have an average weight-gain advantage of between 0.7 and 1.5 pounds (0.08-0.17 standard deviations) during subsequent follow-up interviews. We also find that end-of-year babies reach early developmental milestones faster, but exhibit no advantage in memory, word recognition, or applied problem solving. This end-of-year birth developmental advantage is consistent with the identified tax savings from end-of-year births.

A conceptual approach for an innovative marine animal forest apparatus that facilitates carbon sequestration and biodiversity enhancement.

Climate change, mainly caused by the indiscriminate usage of fossil fuels, is an urgent global challenge which endangers lives and livelihood of billions of people, the integrity of environmental well-being and the composition and functioning of terrestrial/marine ecosystems alike. To address this pressing concern, climate mitigation and adaptation solutions that target "carbon neutrality by 2050" becomes a crucial global mission. Yet, numerous emerged broad solutions that support biological approaches, such as tree planting, are less stable under enhanced climate change impacts (e.g., forests go on fire). Targeting to achieve the Paris Agreement goals, a wide range of blue carbon sequestering (BCS) approaches have been suggested, since they may contribute considerably to carbon neutrality. Unfortunately, most biological solutions, neglect the employment of marine animal-forests. Here I discuss the potential significance of a novel approach for marine animal forests' BCS, converting the commonly used coral nursery tool into a carbon sequestering floating reef device, a modular device that may accommodate carbon and biodiversity credits.

The impact of terminating cost-sharing reductions payments on health insurance plan choices.

The Trump administration terminated cost-sharing reductions (CSRs) payments to health insurers in 2017, while still required insurers to provide CSRs to eligible enrollees in the Marketplace. Marketplace administration data reveals that, in response to this termination, insurers raised premiums to compensate for their loss. Consequently, premium increases led to more advanced premium tax credits for enrollees in the Marketplace. To investigate the impact of CSRs payment termination on low-income consumer insurance plan choices, I leverage variations in state price regulations and employed a difference-in-differences design. In a robustness analysis, I utilized differences in county income distributions to examine the effects of the termination on insurance choices. The results indicate that after the termination, more low-income enrollees opted for cheaper bronze plans, and fewer chose silver plans. These results suggest that alterations in subsidy channels may inadvertently encourage low-income individuals to purchase less expensive health insurance plans, highlighting an unintended consequence of the termination of cost-sharing subsidies.

Does 'summative' count? The influence of the awarding of study credits on feedback use and test-taking motivation in medical progress testing.

Despite the increasing implementation of formative assessment in medical education, its' effect on learning behaviour remains questionable. This effect may depend on how students value formative, and summative assessments differently. Informed by Expectancy Value Theory, we compared test preparation, feedback use, and test-taking motivation of medical students who either took a purely formative progress test (formative PT-group) or a progress test that yielded study credits (summative PT-group). In a mixed-methods study design, we triangulated quantitative questionnaire data (n = 264), logging data of an online PT feedback system (n = 618), and qualitative interview data (n = 21) to compare feedback use, and test-taking motivation between the formative PT-group (n = 316), and the summative PT-group (n = 302). Self-reported, and actual feedback consultation was higher in the summative PT-group. Test preparation, and active feedback use were relatively low and similar in both groups. Both quantitative, and qualitative results showed that the motivation to prepare and consult feedback relates to how students value the assessment. In the interview data, a link could be made with goal orientation theory, as performance-oriented students perceived the formative PT as not important due to the lack of study credits. This led to low test-taking effort, and feedback consultation after the formative PT. In contrast, learning-oriented students valued the formative PT, and used it for self-study or self-assessment to gain feedback. Our results indicate that most students are less motivated to put effort in the test, and use feedback when there are no direct consequences. A supportive assessment environment that emphasizes recognition of the value of formative testing is required to motivate students to use feedback for learning.

The scientific basis of 'net zero emissions' and its diverging sociopolitical representation.

The Net Zero Emissions (NZE) concept has created momentum for climate commitment made by national governments, cities, industries and individual companies. However, evidence of tangible decarbonisation is limited. Here we identify precarious differences between the scientific origin of NZE and its social representation in the wider public and explore the consequences of the resulting science-action gap for achieving global climate goals. A particular focus is given to 'offsetting', which is closely connected to the practical delivery of NZE but typically ignores that different types or carbon credits have different environmental efficacy. Revisiting the science related to the global carbon cycle demonstrates that a heavy reliance on any carbon offsetting that is not a permanent removal presents a real risk. Moreover, competition over scarce 'removal credits' distracts from the real tasks at hand, namely to rapidly decrease fossil fuel emissions, actively remove carbon through restoration, and protect existing terrestrial carbon sinks. Establishing separate targets for these distinct actions is an essential step towards disentangling current confusion. Whilst a 'race to net zero' may trigger innovation in the decarbonisation space, the restoration and protection of carbon sinks demands a collective approach where actors should focus on how to make real and verifiable contributions rather than claiming individual net zero scores.

The business case for carbon farming in the USA.

U.S. agricultural producers are increasingly able to participate in private voluntary carbon initiatives that compensate their efforts to sequester CO2, reduce GHG emissions, and provide ecosystem services through eligible conservation practices. This study examines the potential effects of alternative private payment regimes (per practice vs. per output), prices paid to farmers relative to out-of-pocket costs (low vs. high), and the availability of information on CO2 sequestration (limited vs. full), on the adoption of cover crops and no-till in the United States, the resulting CO2 sequestration, and changes in farmers' net returns. The analysis relies on a highly stylized model of heterogeneous farms calibrated with county-level agronomic data, and simulated for current estimates of GHG impacts of cover crop planting and no-till under different scenarios. Our results indicate that agricultural carbon markets can be profitable for U.S. farmers, although with substantial geographic variability, and that annual carbon sequestration could range between 17 and 75 million mtCO2e. Payments per output would incentivize higher carbon sequestration than payments per practice, but the former regime would be less favored by farmers as a unified group than the latter (due to lower aggregate net returns). However, if operators of farms with high carbon sequestration potential could decide the payment regime to be implemented, they would choose the payment per output regime (due to higher net returns per enrolled hectare). Total projected net changes in GHGs under payments per practice, based solely on county-average net GHG effects of cover crops and no-till, over-estimate actual total GHG sequestration (based on the entire distribution of net effects by county) by 2.1 and 14.2 million mtCO2e, or 18% and 21%, respectively.

From slag to green: Aided-phytoremediation as a sustainable tool to rehabilitate land contaminated by steel slag and assessment of CO2 sequestration.

Steel slag (SS) has many applications, but its immediate reuse is not possible due to its inherent swelling potential and presence of toxic metals. Therefore, it can only be used after the aging process, which can be either natural or artificial. While few large-scale steel plants afford artificial aging, many small-scale ones opt for natural aging through stockpiling of SS. This results in an increase in soil pH to over 12, thus damaging the ecosystem and making it unviable for plant growth. This research focuses on the reclamation of land affected by SS through the formation of a Phyto-barrier using 22 native plant species aided by the application of a 2 % (v/v) solution of the organic amendment. Furthermore, the superior performance of plants belonging to the Fabaceae family was ascertained, while establishing Sesbania grandiflora as an able species for aided-phytoremediation due to its remarkable growth (≈ 10 ft tall and 33 cm in circumference) during the study period. The CO2 sequestered by the plantation showed that maximum sequestration has been done by Sesbania grandiflora (49.96 kg CO2 / tree/ year), and least by Azadirachta indica (0.35 kg CO2/tree/year). The overall CO2 sequestered by the plantation stood at 3.85 tons/year. A cost-benefit analysis of using aided-phytoremediation indicates an expense of 90 $ per year as the recurring expense, while carbon credits if monetized, would yield 154 $ to 308 $ as returns. The investigations of this study established a new approach to vegetation over SS-affected land, through native species and the application of organic amendment.

Financial support policies as a mechanism to reduce child welfare involvement.

None.

Incentive mechanisms of carbon farming contracts: A systematic mapping study.

Despite increasing interest, a lack of comprehensive knowledge regarding the efficient design and implementation of carbon farming schemes remains. These schemes must efficiently achieve higher carbon sequestration, incentivize farmers, and increase farmers' participation in global carbon markets. Our study systematically reviews, describes, and maps available evidence related to carbon farming contracts to assess different incentive mechanisms for carbon farming. We conduct a systematic mapping review of articles extracted from various databases employing the Collaboration for Environmental Evidence method. We shortlist 52 articles and analyze about 40 global case studies, identifying three main incentive mechanisms of carbon farming contracts, namely, result-based, action-based, and hybrid payments. We examine how these incentive mechanisms are designed, in addition to associated payment types, monitoring approaches, and barriers to implementation. Result-based payments include stringent monitoring and can be implemented through auctions, carbon credits, product labels or certificates. Action-based payments are found to be simpler, with lower monitoring requirements for farmers and can be paid upfront or after contract implementation. Hybrid payments combine both techniques, offering low-risk and guaranteed payments for farmers and definite environmental mitigation impacts. Result-based and hybrid payments motivate farmers to innovate to meet environmental objectives while also connecting them to carbon markets. The major challenges to developing a successful carbon farming project include lack of permanence, non-additionality, and the absence of stringent monitoring, reporting, and verification standards, all of which affect farmers' incentives. This study determines that carbon farming contract design and efficiency can be improved by analyzing the lessons learned from previous experiences. By examining and improving the attributes that define different incentive mechanisms, farmers can be better motivated to enroll in carbon farming schemes and benefit from increased access to carbon markets to potentially transform agriculture into a viable tool for climate action.

The status of forest carbon markets in Latin America.

Tropical rainforests of Latin America (LATAM) are one of the world's largest carbon sinks, with substantial future carbon sequestration potential and contributing a major proportion of the global supply of forest carbon credits. LATAM is poised to contribute predominantly towards high-quality forest carbon offset projects designed to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, halt biodiversity loss, and provide equitable conservation benefits to people. Thus, carbon markets, including compliance carbon markets and voluntary carbon markets continue to expand in LATAM. However, the extent of the growth and status of forest carbon markets, pricing initiatives, stakeholders, amongst others, are yet to be explored and extensively reviewed for the entire LATAM region. Against this backdrop, we reviewed a total of 299 articles, including peer-reviewed and non-scientific gray literature sources, from January 2010 to March 2023. Herein, based on the extensive literature review, we present the results and provide perspectives classified into five categories: (i) the status and recent trends of forest carbon markets (ii) the interested parties and their role in the forest carbon markets, (iii) the measurement, reporting and verification (MRV) approaches and role of remote sensing, (iv) the challenges, and (v) the benefits, opportunities, future directions and recommendations to enhance forest carbon markets in LATAM. Despite the substantial challenges, better governance structures for forest carbon markets can increase the number, quality and integrity of projects and support the carbon sequestration capacity of the rainforests of LATAM. Due to the complex and extensive nature of forest carbon projects in LATAM, emerging technologies like remote sensing can enable scale and reduce technical barriers to MRV, if properly benchmarked. The future directions and recommendations provided are intended to improve upon the existing infrastructure and governance mechanisms, and encourage further participation from the public and private sectors in forest carbon markets in LATAM.

Air-sea carbon dioxide equilibrium: Will it be possible to use seaweeds for carbon removal offsets?

To limit global warming below 2°C by 2100, we must drastically reduce greenhouse gas emissions and additionally remove ~100-900 Gt CO2 from the atmosphere (carbon dioxide removal, CDR) to compensate for unavoidable emissions. Seaweeds (marine macroalgae) naturally grow in coastal regions worldwide where they are crucial for primary production and carbon cycling. They are being considered as a biological method for CDR and for use in carbon trading schemes as offsets. To use seaweeds in carbon trading schemes requires verification that seaweed photosynthesis that fixes CO2 into organic carbon results in CDR, along with the safe and secure storage of the carbon removed from the atmosphere for more than 100 years (sequestration). There is much ongoing research into the magnitude of seaweed carbon storage pools (e.g., as living biomass and as particulate and dissolved organic carbon in sediments and the deep ocean), but these pools do not equate to CDR unless the amount of CO2 removed from the atmosphere as a result of seaweed primary production can be quantified and verified. The draw-down of atmospheric CO2 into seawater is via air-sea CO2 equilibrium, which operates on time scales of weeks to years depending upon the ecosystem considered. Here, we explain why quantifying air-sea CO2 equilibrium and linking this process to seaweed carbon storage pools is the critical step needed to verify CDR by discrete seaweed beds and nearshore and open ocean aquaculture systems prior to their use in carbon trading.

Comparative analysis of biochar carbon stability methods and implications for carbon credits.

Biochar is an emerging negative emission technology. Its ability to sequester carbon and subsequent carbon credit valuation hinge on the stability of its carbon structure. The widely used indicators of carbon stability H:Corg and O:Corg provide conservative results as these are based on limited incubation experiments and associated modeling results. The results from these accepted methods and other derived methods have not been compared as indicators of carbon stability in a variety of biochar samples. Furthermore, the influence of contrasting feedstock and production techniques on biochar carbon stability is not well explored. Therefore, to address these challenges, a comprehensive stability analysis of 21 different biochar samples with contrasting feedstocks and pyrolysis techniques was conducted using a combination of instrumental methods and derived indicators of carbon stability. Methods such as biochar carbon half-life, thermo-stable fraction, oxidation resistance (R50), and carbon sequestration potential (CS) were used. Based on the initial carbon content of the biochar, simple pyrolysis techniques have similar potential for carbon credits as biochar produced from advanced pyrolysis techniques. Results indicate that the carbon stability of a biochar product is primarily a factor of feedstock type. We found that biochar carbon stability is not related to volatile matter or fixed carbon content for biochar produced using a simple pyrolysis technique and mixed feedstock. Biochars with H:Corg < 0.4 were deemed to have lower carbon stability when compared using different methods. No correlation was observed between the carbon stability of biochar using H:Corg and other methods, however, correlations were observed between half-life, O:Corg, fixed carbon, number of aromatic peaks in FTIR spectrum, R50, and CS. Therefore, it is recommended that data from additional incubation and modeling studies need to be considered to increase the confidence in carbon stability results having major implications to carbon credits.

Revisiting the effects of state earned income tax credits on infant health: a quasi-experimental study using contiguous border counties approach.

BACKGROUND: To examine the effects of refundable state earned income tax credits (EITC) on infant health. METHODS: We use the restricted-access U.S. birth certificate data with county codes from 1989 to 2018. Birth outcomes include birth weight, low birth weight, gestational weeks, preterm birth, and the fetal growth rate. The analytical sample includes single mothers with high school education or less. Two specifications of two-way fixed effects models are employed. The first specification accounts for shared time trends across all states/counties. The second specification estimates effects based on EITC changes within contiguous counties across state borders which accounts for contemporaneous events specific to each contiguous county pair. Models are estimated pooling and stratifying by parity subgroups. RESULTS: Under the first specification, refundable state EITC is associated with improved birth outcomes. Pooling all parity, a 10%-point increase in refundable EITC is associated with an 8-gram increase in birth weight (95% CI: 2.9,14.6). The effect increases by parity. In contrast, the estimates from the second model are much smaller and statistically non-significant, both pooling and stratifying by parity. CONCLUSIONS: Comparing contiguous counties across state borders, there is no evidence that refundable state EITC affects birth outcomes. However, the estimates still do not rule out moderate to large benefits for third or higher born infants.

Do trade credits finance long-term investments?

Our model indicates that European firms across all size categories use trade credits to purchase 6%-15% of tangible fixed assets and 14%-30% of intangible assets in the short-run. A long-run target adjustment model shows that large firms eventually replace most of this temporary trade credit financing with cheaper sources of funds. However, even in the long-run, small firms finance 4%-6% of tangible fixed asset purchases and 5%-10% of intangible fixed asset purchases using trade credit. Since smaller firms do not have the same access to bank credit as larger firms, trade credit is used to fund long-term investments Trade credit is therefore a key component in the capital structure decisions of smaller firms and it should be included in their weighted-average cost of capital calculations.

Industrial garbage-derived biocompost enhances soil organic carbon fractions, CO2 biosequestration, potential carbon credits and sustainability index in a rice-wheat ecosystem.

The objectives of this experiment were i) to study on the garbage composting to improve the soil organic carbon (SOC) pools (active and passive), ii) work out the carbon (C) budgeting, and iii) cut off C footprints (CFs) in the rice (Oryza sativa L.)-wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) farming to achieve the long-term sustainability. The main plots show four fertilizer levels (F0 = control, F1 = 112.5:45:45 kg nitrogen; phosphorus; potassium (NPK) ha-1, F2 = 150:60:60 kg NPK ha-1 and F3 = 150:60:60 kg NPK ha-1+ 5 kg iron (Fe) + 5 kg zinc (Zn) were applied, while in sub plots with the combination of three industrial garbage (I1 = carpet garbage; I2 = pressmud; I3 = bagasse) and three microbial culture (M1 = Pleurotus sajor-caju, M2 = Azotobacter chroococcum; M3 = Trichoderma viride) made into nine treatment combinations were applied. Based on the interaction, treatment F3 × I1+M3 resulted in a maximum of 25.1 and 22.4 Mg ha-1 total CO2 biosequestration by rice and wheat, respectively. However, it was cut off CFs by 29.9 and 22.2% more than F1 × I3+M1. Based on the soil C fractionation study, in the main plot treatment, F3 was active very labile C (VLC) and moderately labile C (MLC) and passive less labile C (LLC) and recalcitrant C (RC) SOC fractions contributed by 68.3 and 30.0%, respectively, of total SOC. However, in the sub plot, treatment I1+M3 found 68.2% and 29.8% active and passive SOC fractions, respectively, of total SOC. Regarding the soil microbial biomass C (SMBC) study, F3 had 37.7% higher than F0. However, in the sub plot, I1+M3 was seen to be 21.5% greater than I2+M1. Furthermore, wheat and rice had higher 1002 and 897 US$ ha-1 potential C credit in F3 × I1+M3, respectively. SOC fractions were perfectly positively correlated with SMBC. A positive (+) correlation was observed among grain yield (wheat and rice) and SOC pools in soil. However, a negative correlation was found between the C sustainability index (CSI) and greenhouse gas intensity (GHGI). The variability in wheat and rice grain yield was 46 and 74%, respectively, contributed by the SOC pools. Therefore, this study hypothesised that applying inorganic nutrients and industrial garbage converted into biocompost cut off C emissions and reduced the demand for chemical fertilizers, opening garbage disposal, and simultaneously enhancing the SOC pools.

Trees outside forests as climate change mitigation champions: evaluating their carbon sequestration potential and monetary value in Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak (Haryana), India.

The annual average increase in carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration is touching new heights every year. Global climate change and warming are twin outcomes of record-breaking CO2 levels. The trees outside forests (TOF) are the most promising and suitable components in the ecosystem for combating global warming via carbon (C) sequestration. Urban university campuses are the hotspot regions of TOF. We have attempted to quantify the C stock, C sequestration potential, and C credit value of dominant tree species at Maharshi Dayanand University (MDU), Rohtak. Different volumetric and biomass equations were used for biomass computation. We assessed a total of 29,442 trees (top 10) for measuring phytosociological parameters like total tree count, age, height (H), and diameter at breast height (DBH) to quantify the amount of C stored. The total C stock, C sequestration rate, and monetary value were 78.67 (Mg C ha-1), 19.05 (Mg CO2 ha-1 year-1), and 23,101.59 $ year-1, respectively. Eucalyptus globulus is the most dominant tree species on the campus and topped almost all the quantitative characteristics like total tree count (~40 %), age (25 years), density (D) (55.35 trees ha-1), and total C stock (16.06 ± 9.90 ï»¿Mg C ha-1). Tree basal area (BA), D, diversity, and H positively affected the total C stocks. When the C market becomes operational, these C credits can be traded while generating additional income for the university. The results from this study can also help calculate the total C footprint of the campus.

The effect of working tax credits on child maltreatment rates: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Socioeconomic status and poverty are strongly associated with Child Maltreatment. Multiple studies have described the effects of working tax credits on Child Maltreatment with heterogeneous results. There is yet to be a comprehensive review of this research. OBJECTIVES: This study aims to review all research which explores the effect of working tax credits on child maltreatment. METHODS: Three databases (Ovid Medline, Scopus and Web of Science) were searched. Title and abstracts were screened according to a set of eligibility criteria. Data were extracted from eligible studies, and risk of bias was assessed using the Risk of Bias in Non-randomized Studies of Interventions tool. Results were synthesised narratively. RESULTS: Nine studies were included. Of these, five papers investigated overall reports of child maltreatment, with three finding a positive effect of tax credits. Results suggested a protective effect against child neglect, however, no significant effect was found with respect to physical or emotional abuse. Three of four papers found that working tax credits resulted in decreased rates of entry to foster care. Mixed results were found with respect to self-reported child protective services contact. A range of methodological and temporal differences between studies was identified. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, some evidence found that in work tax credits are protective against child maltreatment and that they are most effective in reducing neglect. Policymakers can take courage in these results, as they represent an example whereby the "risk factors" of child maltreatment can be countered in order to reduce rates of it.

Environmental and economic benefits of wheat and chickpea crop rotation in the Mediterranean region of Apulia (Italy).

Wheat plays an essential role in safeguarding global food security. However, its intensive agricultural production, aimed at maximizing crop yields and associated economic benefits, jeopardizes many ecosystem services and the economic stability of farmers. Rotations with leguminous are recognized as a promising strategy in favor of sustainable agriculture. However, not all crop rotations are suitable for promoting sustainability and their implications on agricultural soil and crop quality should be carefully analyzed. This research aims to demonstrate the environmental and economic benefits of introducing chickpea into a wheat-based system under Mediterranean pedo-climatic conditions. For this purpose, the crop rotation "wheat-chickpea" was evaluated and compared with the conventional regime (wheat monoculture) by means of life cycle assessment methodology. For this purpose, inventory data (e.g., agrochemical doses, machinery, energy consumption, production yield, among others) was compiled for each crop and cropping system, thus converted into environmental impacts based on two functional units: 1 ha per year and one € of gross margin. Eleven environmental indicators were analyzed, including soil quality and biodiversity loss. Results indicate that chickpea-wheat rotation system offers lower environmental impacts, regardless of the functional unit considered. Global warming (18 %) and freshwater ecotoxicity (20 %) were the categories with the largest reductions. Furthermore, a remarkable increase (96 %) in gross margin was observed with the rotation system, due to the low cost of chickpea cultivation and its higher market price. Nevertheless, proper fertilizer management remains essential to fully attain the environmental benefits of crop rotation with legumes.

Economic analysis of the circular economy based on waste plastic pyrolysis oil: a case of the university campus.

Recently, the concept of a circular economy for carbon neutrality is emerging. In particular, waste plastics are one of the key wastes, and efforts are being made to recycle them as energy rather than dispose of them. Accordingly, the technology of producing and utilizing pyrolysis oil from waste plastics attracts attention. As it is an early stage of technology development, however, there are not many demonstrations and papers that analyze the technology broadly. The goal of this study is to propose building a circular economy on a university campus through waste plastic pyrolysis oil technology. To show its feasibility, waste plastic pyrolysis oil technology is analyzed comprehensively from economic, environmental, and policy perspectives using the scenario analysis technique on the university campus level. A methodology of the scenario analysis technique enables predicting the uncertainties. Since plastic pyrolysis oil technologies and carbon neutrality are accompanied by many uncertainties, this technique is expected to be an appropriate methodology for this study. First, the amount of pyrolysis oil production from waste plastics from the campus is estimated. Then, the cost and carbon emissions from waste plastics are estimated if the pyrolysis oil technology is used instead of the traditional waste disposal process. As a result, the total economic profits of up to 425,484,022 won/year (354,570.01 $/year) are expected when a circular economy is built using waste plastic pyrolysis oil. In addition, it is also confirmed that greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions can be reduced by up to 840,891 kgCO2eq/year. The waste plastic pyrolysis oil satisfies Korea's gas pollutant standards and is consistent with the GHG reduction policy. It can be concluded that building a circular economy at the university campus level using waste plastic pyrolysis oil technology is suitable from economic, environmental, and policy perspectives.

Understanding the Use of Carbon Credits by Companies: A Review of the Defining Elements of Corporate Climate Claims.

Worldwide, companies are increasingly making claims about their current climate efforts and their future mitigation commitments. These claims tend to be underpinned by carbon credits issued in voluntary carbon markets to offset emissions. Corporate climate claims are largely unregulated which means that they are often (perceived to be) misleading and deceptive. As such, corporate climate claims risk undermining, rather than contributing to, global climate mitigation. This paper takes as its point of departure the proposition that a better understanding of corporate climate claims is needed to govern such claims in a manner that adequately addresses potential greenwashing risks. To that end, the paper reviews the nascent literature on corporate climate claims relying on the use of voluntary carbon credits. Drawing on the reviewed literature, three key dimensions of corporate climate claims as related to carbon credits are discussed: 1) the intended use of carbon credits: offsetting versus non-offsetting claims; 2) the framing and meaning of headline terms: net-zero versus carbon neutral claims; and 3) the status of the claim: future aspirational commitments versus stated achievements. The paper thereby offers a preliminary categorization of corporate climate claims and discusses risks associated with and governance implications for each of these categories.