Polyurethane Adhesives for Wood Based on a Simple Mixture of Castor Oil and Crude Glycerin.

Developing a new type of polyurethane is essential because conventional options often exhibit shortcomings in terms of environmental sustainability, cost-effectiveness, and performance in specialized applications. A novel polyurethane adhesive derived from a simple mixture of castor oil (CO) and crude glycerin (CG) holds promise as it reduces reliance on fossil fuels and harnesses renewable resources, making it environmentally friendly. Simple CO/CG mixtures, adjusted at three different weight fractions, were used as bio-based polyester polyols to produce polyurethane adhesive for wood bonding. The resulting products are yellowish liquids with moderate-to-high viscosity, measuring 19,800-21,000 cP at 25 °C. The chemical structure of the polyester polyols was characterized using infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), thermogravimetry (TG), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). These polyols reacted with polymeric 4,4-methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (p-MDI) at a consistent isocyanate index of 1.3, resulting in the formation of polyurethane adhesives. Crucially, all final adhesives met the adhesive strength requirements specified by ASTM D-5751 standards, underscoring their suitability for wood bonding applications. The addition of CG enhanced the surface and volumetric hydrophobicity of the cured adhesives, resulting in adhesive properties that are not only stronger but also more weather-resistant. Although the thermal stability of the adhesives decreased with the inclusion of CG, FTIR analysis confirmed proper polyurethane polymer formation. The adhesive adjusted for a 2:1 CO:CG weight ratio promoted wood-wood bonding with the highest shear strength, likely due to a higher formation of urethane linkages between hydroxyl groups from the blend of polyols and isocyanate groups from the p-MDI.

Agroindustrial wastes as a substrate for the cultivation of Eruca sativa Miller seedlings: physical-chemical and phytometric parameters assessment.

Evaluation was made of the use of organic substrates obtained from the composting of poultry industry wastes, together with crude glycerin, for the production of arugula seedlings (Eruca sativa Miller). The raw materials included hatchery waste, chicken litter, and flotation tank sludge, in combination with other materials such as tree pruning, sugarcane bagasse, crude glycerin (at 0, 1.5, 3.0, 4.5, and 6.0%), and boiler charcoal. Analysis of the organic substrates included determination of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK), pH, electrical conductivity, functional groups, and carboxylic acids. Physical parameters determined were water retention capacity, solids volume, porosity, density, and granulometry. For the arugula seedlings, determinations were made of the ease of removal of the root ball from the tray, the effect of free drop on the root ball, phytometric parameters, and total phenolic compounds. Decreased concentrations of carboxylic acids, together with the presence of aromatic functional groups, indicated maturation/stabilization of the organic substrates. The phytometric measurements indicated that the use of the organic substrates with addition of 3.0, 4.5, and 6.0% of crude glycerin favored arugula production and led to higher contents of total phenolic compounds in the seedlings, with values of 3657.54, 3602.13, and 3232.92 mg GAE g-1, respectively. The results demonstrated that the use of these organic substrates with the addition of crude glycerin provided satisfactory development of arugula seedlings.

Up-recycling oil produced water as the media-base for the production of xanthan gum.

Produced water (PW) and crude glycerin (CG) are compounds overproduced by the oil and biodiesel industry and significant scientific efforts are being applied for properly recycling them. The aim of this research is to combine such industrial byproducts for sustaining the production of xanthan by Xanthomonas campestris. Xanthan yields and viscosity on distinct PW ratios (0, 10, 15, 25, 50, 100) and on 100% dialyzed PW (DPW) in shaker batch testing identified DPW treatment as the best approach for further bioreactor experiments. Such experiments showed a xanthan yield of 17.3 g/L within 54 h and a viscosity of 512 mPa s. Physical-chemical characterization (energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy and Raman spectroscopy) showed similarities between the produced gum and the experimental control. This research shows a clear alternative for upcycling high salinity PW and CG for the generation of a valued bioproduct for the oil industry.

Crambe meal and crude glycerin from biodiesel production in diets for finishing of crossbred cattle in feedlot.

Our hypothesis is that crambe meal can totally substitute soybean meal and crude glycerin can partially replace the corn in the diet without leading to losses of nutrient intake and productive performance. Two assays were performed using heifers and steers. In the first assay, 24 Beefalo-Nellore heifers with 18 months old with 311.5 ± 5.5 kg, and in the second assay, 24 Beefalo-Nellore steers with 18 months old with 317.0 ± 6.4 kg were evaluated. The experiment was carried out in a randomized complete design, in a 2 × 2 factorial scheme, consisting of two energy sources (corn and crude glycerin) and two protein sources (soybean meal and crambe meal). Both assays had 104 experimental days of feedlot. There was no interaction between the variation sources. There was an effect of protein source on nutrient intake for heifers except to neutral detergent fiber intake, which presented effect of energy source. Heifers fed soybean meal showed higher results for total weight gain and daily weight gain. There was observed effect of energy source on rib eye area and subcutaneous fat thickness. Steers fed soybean meal showed higher neutral detergent fiber intake and non-fibrous carbohydrates. Steers fed corn + crude glycerin showed higher results for total weight gain and daily weight gain. The steers fed soybean meal showed higher averages for subcutaneous fat thickness. Crambe meal and crude glycerin can be used as alternative sources of energy and protein to replace 100% of soybean and 50% of corn, respectively, for finishing Beefalo-Nellore cattle in a feedlot.

Feeding behavior of feedlot lambs fed diets with different energy and protein sources.

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of the replacement of ground corn by crude glycerin and soybean meal by cottonseed cake, in association or not, on feedlot lambs' feeding behavior. Thirty-two non-castrated crossbred ½ Dorper ½ Santa Inês lambs, with an average body weight of 18.52 ± 3.24 kg (mean ± standard deviation), were distributed in a completely randomized design, into four treatments and eight replicates per treatment, in a 2 × 2 factorial scheme. Four experimental diets were tested with different sources or combinations of energy and protein ingredients in the concentrate, respectively: (1) ground corn + soybean meal; (2) ground corn and cottonseed cake; (3) crude glycerin and soybean meal; and (4) crude glycerin and cottonseed cake. The glycerin decreased dry matter (DM) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) (P < 0.001) intakes, whereas it increased times spent in feeding (P = 0.009; from 21.8 to 28.6), rumination (P = 0.006; from 56.2 to 67.2), and chewing (P < 0.001; from 79.4 to 97.2), in minutes/100 g of DM. Feeding efficiencies of DM (P = 0.003) and NDF (P = 0.008) were decreased by the diets. Protein sources increased (P = 0.018) the times spent in chewing and per period in rumination (P = 0.014). Cottonseed cake, as a protein source, up to a 112 g/kg DM level, can totally replace soybean meal in diets for feedlot lambs without effects on the intake, behavioral activities, and feeding efficiencies. In contrast, the crude glycerin energy source is not adequate to replace ground corn in lambs' diets.

Feedlot of lambs fed biodiesel co-products: performance, commercial cuts and economic evaluation.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the animal performance, commercial cuts, and their yields within the production system, and economics of sheep production, of lambs finished in feedlots and fed with or without biodiesel co-products. A total of 40 lambs were divided into four biodiesel co-product treatment groups: a no-treatment control; peanut meal; crude glycerin; and peanut meal + crude glycerin. Animal performance did not differ (P > 0.05) among the treatment groups, where the average daily gain was close to 0.26 kg/day. Likewise, the quantitative carcass characteristics did not differ (P > 0.05) and the biological mean yield was 54.92%. Similarly, the commercial cuts and their yields did not differ (P ≥ 0.09) among the treatments. These results took into consideration the standard, age, and slaughter body weight of the animals. The economic evaluation determined that peanut meal was the best co-product for use in finishing lambs in a feedlot. Hence, all the biodiesel co-products evaluated can be used at feedlots to finish lambs without changing the variables measured.

Intake, digestibility, and ruminal parameters of Nellore bulls supplemented with increasing levels of crude glycerin in Brachiaria Brizantha pastures / Consumo, digestibilidade e parâmetros ruminais de machos Nelore não castrados suplementados com níveis crescentes de glicerina bruta em pastagens de “Brachiaria brizantha”

We evaluated the effects of increasing levels of crude glycerin in multiple supplements for grazing beef cattle on intake, nutrient digestibility, pH, ruminal ammoniacal nitrogen, and serum glucose. Five Nellore steers (initial BW of 480 kg [SD 15]), grazing a tropical pasture, were used in a 5 × 5 Latin square design. The treatments used were control (no supplementation; only a mineral mixture ad libitum) and four levels of crude glycerin (0, 80, 160, 240 g/kg of supplements). Supplementation type had no impact (P > 0.05) on pH at 0 and 4 h after supplementation. Animals supplemented with different levels of crude glycerin showed higher N-NH3 values (P 0.05), increasing dry matter intake (P > 0.05) due to increased organic matter digestibility (P > 0.05). Supplementation of 4 kg/animal with crude glycerin (240 g/kg supplement) did not reduce pasture intake and organic matter digestibility.

Objetivou-se avaliar o efeito de níveis crescentes de glicerina bruta em suplementos múltiplos, sobre consumo, digestibilidade dos nutrientes, pH, nitrogênio amoniacal ruminal e glicose sérica. Foram utilizados cinco novilhos, Nelore (peso inicial de 480 kg ± 15), em pastejo de forragem tropical, em delineamento experimental Quadrado Latino 5X5. Os tratamentos utilizados foram controle (apenas suplementação mineral) e quatro níveis de glicerina bruta (0, 80, 160, 240 g/kg de suplemento). Não houve influencia do tipo de suplementação (P>0,05) para pH no tempo zero ou quatro horas após a suplementação. Os animais suplementados com níveis de glicerina bruta apresentaram maior N-NH3 (P>0,05) quatro horas após a suplementação, e o consumo de pasto não foi afetado (P>0,05), com incremento no consumo de matéria seca total (P<0,05), devido o aumento da digestibilidade da matéria orgânica (P<0,05). Os suplementos concentrados fornecidos na quantidade de 4 kg por animal a inclusão de glicerina bruta (240 g/kg de suplemento) não altera o consumo de pasto, suplemento e matéria orgânica digerida.

Intake, digestibility, and ruminal parameters of Nellore bulls supplemented with increasing levels of crude glycerin in Brachiaria Brizantha pastures / Consumo, digestibilidade e parâmetros ruminais de machos Nelore não castrados suplementados com níveis crescentes de glicerina bruta em pastagens de “Brachiaria brizantha”

We evaluated the effects of increasing levels of crude glycerin in multiple supplements for grazing beef cattle on intake, nutrient digestibility, pH, ruminal ammoniacal nitrogen, and serum glucose. Five Nellore steers (initial BW of 480 kg [SD 15]), grazing a tropical pasture, were used in a 5 × 5 Latin square design. The treatments used were control (no supplementation; only a mineral mixture ad libitum) and four levels of crude glycerin (0, 80, 160, 240 g/kg of supplements). Supplementation type had no impact (P > 0.05) on pH at 0 and 4 h after supplementation. Animals supplemented with different levels of crude glycerin showed higher N-NH3 values (P < 0.05) at 4 h after supplementation. Crude glycerin supplementation did not reduce pasture intake (P > 0.05), increasing dry matter intake (P > 0.05) due to increased organic matter digestibility (P > 0.05). Supplementation of 4 kg/animal with crude glycerin (240 g/kg supplement) did not reduce pasture intake and organic matter digestibility.(AU)

Objetivou-se avaliar o efeito de níveis crescentes de glicerina bruta em suplementos múltiplos, sobre consumo, digestibilidade dos nutrientes, pH, nitrogênio amoniacal ruminal e glicose sérica. Foram utilizados cinco novilhos, Nelore (peso inicial de 480 kg ± 15), em pastejo de forragem tropical, em delineamento experimental Quadrado Latino 5X5. Os tratamentos utilizados foram controle (apenas suplementação mineral) e quatro níveis de glicerina bruta (0, 80, 160, 240 g/kg de suplemento). Não houve influencia do tipo de suplementação (P>0,05) para pH no tempo zero ou quatro horas após a suplementação. Os animais suplementados com níveis de glicerina bruta apresentaram maior N-NH3 (P>0,05) quatro horas após a suplementação, e o consumo de pasto não foi afetado (P>0,05), com incremento no consumo de matéria seca total (P<0,05), devido o aumento da digestibilidade da matéria orgânica (P<0,05). Os suplementos concentrados fornecidos na quantidade de 4 kg por animal a inclusão de glicerina bruta (240 g/kg de suplemento) não altera o consumo de pasto, suplemento e matéria orgânica digerida.(AU)

Effects of partial replacement of maize in the diet with crude glycerin and/or soyabean oil on ruminal fermentation and microbial population in Nellore steers.

The objective of this study was to determine whether a combination of crude glycerin (CG) and soyabean oil (SO) could be used to partially replace maize in the diet of Nellore steers while maintaining optimum feed utilisation. Eight castrated Nellore steers fitted with ruminal and duodenal cannulas were used in a double 4×4 Latin square design balanced for residual effects, in a factorial arrangement (A×B), when factor A corresponded to the provision of SO, and factor B to the provision of CG. Steers feed SO and CG showed similar DM intake, DM, organic matter and neutral-detergent fibre digestibility to that of steers fed diets without oil and without glycerine (P>0·05). Both diets with CG additions reduced the acetate:propionate ratio and increased the proportion of iso-butyrate, butyrate, iso-valerate and valerate (P<0·05). Steers fed diets containing SO had less total N excretion (P<0·001) and showed greater retained N expressed as % N intake (P=0·022). SO and CG diet generated a greater ruminal abundance of Prevotella, Succinivibrio, Ruminococcus, Syntrophococcus and Succiniclasticum. Archaea abundance (P=0·002) and total ciliate protozoa were less in steers fed diets containing SO (P=0·011). CG associated with lipids could be an energy source, which is a useful strategy for the partial replacement of maize in cattle diets, could result in reduced total N excretion and ruminal methanogens without affecting intake and digestibility.

Methane production by in vitro ruminal fermentation of feed ingredients / Produção de metano pela fermentação ruminal in vitro de ingredientes

This study investigates the methane and carbon dioxide gas production, dry matter degradation, and final pH values obtained during the in vitro incubation of corn grain, soybean hulls, citrus pulp, corn silage, and crude glycerin. Experiments were performed using a randomized block design with four incubation periods. Each period featured four replicates per ingredient and four blanks, totaling 16 repetitions per ingredient. The lowest total amount of produced gas (37.96 mL gincubated DM-1) and the lowest final pH value (4.95) were obtained for crude glycerin (P 0.05), which, however, exhibited the highest (P 0.05) DM degradation. Citrus pulp produced the largest amount (P 0.05) of CH4 per gram of incubated DM (13.56 mL g-1). However, when methane production was expressed per gram of degraded feed, the ingredients with lower degradation values, such as soybean hulls and corn silage, produced more CH4 per gram of degraded DM. Citrus pulp and corn grain produced more (P 0.05) CO2 per gram of incubated DM. However, per gram of degraded food, citrus pulp produced the largest amount of CO2 (P 0.05). Crude glycerin and corn grain produced less methane (per gram of degraded feed) than citrus pulp, soybean hulls, and corn silage. Differentiation of ingredients based on their methane production ability is important to express methane production per unit degraded food mass.(AU)

Objetivou-se estudar os ingredientes milho, casca de soja, polpa cítrica, silagem de milho e glicerina bruta, avaliando a produção dos gases metano e carbônico, a degradação da matéria seca e o pH final da incubação in vitro. Utilizou-se o delineamento em blocos casualizados, com quatro períodos de incubações, em que cada período teve 4 repetições por ingrediente e 4 brancos, totalizando 16 repetições por ingrediente. A glicerina bruta apresentou menor produção total de gases (37,96mL g-1 de MS incubada), menor valor de pH final (4,95) aliado à maior degradação da MS. A polpa cítrica foi o ingrediente com maior (P 0,05) produção de CH4 g-1 MS incubada (13,56mL g-1), no entanto, ao expressar a produção de metano por unidade de alimento degradado, os ingredientes com menores degradações, como a casca de soja, a polpa cítrica e a silagem de milho, produziram mais CH4 g-1 MS degradada. A polpa cítrica e o milho apresentaram maiores (P 0,05) produções de CO2 g-1 MS incubada, porém, por unidade de alimento degradado, a polpa cítrica se destacou com maior produção (P 0,05). O milho e a glicerina bruta produzem menos metano por unidade de alimento degradado em relação à polpa cítrica, casca de soja e a silagem de milho. Para diferenciar a produção de metano dos ingredientes é importante expressar os valores por unidade de alimento degradado.(AU)

Methane production by in vitro ruminal fermentation of feed ingredients / Produção de metano pela fermentação ruminal in vitro de ingredientes

This study investigates the methane and carbon dioxide gas production, dry matter degradation, and final pH values obtained during the in vitro incubation of corn grain, soybean hulls, citrus pulp, corn silage, and crude glycerin. Experiments were performed using a randomized block design with four incubation periods. Each period featured four replicates per ingredient and four blanks, totaling 16 repetitions per ingredient. The lowest total amount of produced gas (37.96 mL gincubated DM-1) and the lowest final pH value (4.95) were obtained for crude glycerin (P 0.05), which, however, exhibited the highest (P 0.05) DM degradation. Citrus pulp produced the largest amount (P 0.05) of CH4 per gram of incubated DM (13.56 mL g-1). However, when methane production was expressed per gram of degraded feed, the ingredients with lower degradation values, such as soybean hulls and corn silage, produced more CH4 per gram of degraded DM. Citrus pulp and corn grain produced more (P 0.05) CO2 per gram of incubated DM. However, per gram of degraded food, citrus pulp produced the largest amount of CO2 (P 0.05). Crude glycerin and corn grain produced less methane (per gram of degraded feed) than citrus pulp, soybean hulls, and corn silage. Differentiation of ingredients based on their methane production ability is important to express methane production per unit degraded food mass.

Objetivou-se estudar os ingredientes milho, casca de soja, polpa cítrica, silagem de milho e glicerina bruta, avaliando a produção dos gases metano e carbônico, a degradação da matéria seca e o pH final da incubação in vitro. Utilizou-se o delineamento em blocos casualizados, com quatro períodos de incubações, em que cada período teve 4 repetições por ingrediente e 4 brancos, totalizando 16 repetições por ingrediente. A glicerina bruta apresentou menor produção total de gases (37,96mL g-1 de MS incubada), menor valor de pH final (4,95) aliado à maior degradação da MS. A polpa cítrica foi o ingrediente com maior (P 0,05) produção de CH4 g-1 MS incubada (13,56mL g-1), no entanto, ao expressar a produção de metano por unidade de alimento degradado, os ingredientes com menores degradações, como a casca de soja, a polpa cítrica e a silagem de milho, produziram mais CH4 g-1 MS degradada. A polpa cítrica e o milho apresentaram maiores (P 0,05) produções de CO2 g-1 MS incubada, porém, por unidade de alimento degradado, a polpa cítrica se destacou com maior produção (P 0,05). O milho e a glicerina bruta produzem menos metano por unidade de alimento degradado em relação à polpa cítrica, casca de soja e a silagem de milho. Para diferenciar a produção de metano dos ingredientes é importante expressar os valores por unidade de alimento degradado.

Alternativas de uso de subproduto da cadeia do biodiesel na alimentação de ruminantes: glicerina bruta / An alternative use of bio-diesel sub-products as feed ingredients for ruminants: the crude glycerin

A busca por novas fontes de energia renováveis tem aumentado a produção de biodiesel em todo o mundo. No entanto, esse aumento tem gerado uma grande produção de resíduos na cadeia do biodiesel e estes ainda não apresentam destino certo, tornando-se um grande entrave em sua viabilidade econômica e ambiental. Os principais resíduos são obtidos após a extração do óleo de sementes oleaginosas (tortas e farelos) e após o processo de conversão de triglicerídeos em biodiesel por meio de transesterificação (glicerina bruta), os quais representam mais de 50% da massa inicial de sementes utilizada na cadeia agroindustrial. Diante disso, a utilização desses resíduos na alimentação animal tem se mostrado uma alternativa viável. Entretanto, estudos precisam ser realizados quanto aos limites e as perspectivas de utilização na alimentação animal.

The search for new sources of renewable energy has increased bio-diesel production worldwide. However, this increase has caused a great production of residues in the bio-diesel industry and they still do not have an established exploitation, becoming a major impediment in its economic and environmental viability. The bio-diesel residues are obtained after extracting the oil from oilseeds (cake and meals) and after the process of conversion of triglycerides into biodiesel through trans-esterification (crude glycerin), which represent over 50% of the initial mass of seed used in the industry. Therefore, the use of these residues in animal feed has proved a viable alternative. However, there is a lack of studies regarding the limits and prospects for use in animal feed

Alternativas de uso de subproduto da cadeia do biodiesel na alimentação de ruminantes: glicerina bruta / An alternative use of bio-diesel sub-products as feed ingredients for ruminants: the crude glycerin

A busca por novas fontes de energia renováveis tem aumentado a produção de biodiesel em todo o mundo. No entanto, esse aumento tem gerado uma grande produção de resíduos na cadeia do biodiesel e estes ainda não apresentam destino certo, tornando-se um grande entrave em sua viabilidade econômica e ambiental. Os principais resíduos são obtidos após a extração do óleo de sementes oleaginosas (tortas e farelos) e após o processo de conversão de triglicerídeos em biodiesel por meio de transesterificação (glicerina bruta), os quais representam mais de 50% da massa inicial de sementes utilizada na cadeia agroindustrial. Diante disso, a utilização desses resíduos na alimentação animal tem se mostrado uma alternativa viável. Entretanto, estudos precisam ser realizados quanto aos limites e as perspectivas de utilização na alimentação animal.(AU)

The search for new sources of renewable energy has increased bio-diesel production worldwide. However, this increase has caused a great production of residues in the bio-diesel industry and they still do not have an established exploitation, becoming a major impediment in its economic and environmental viability. The bio-diesel residues are obtained after extracting the oil from oilseeds (cake and meals) and after the process of conversion of triglycerides into biodiesel through trans-esterification (crude glycerin), which represent over 50% of the initial mass of seed used in the industry. Therefore, the use of these residues in animal feed has proved a viable alternative. However, there is a lack of studies regarding the limits and prospects for use in animal feed (AU)