The use of histológical parameters to assess intestinal and liver health on broilers challenged isolatedly and simultaneously with cyclopiazonic acid and aflatoxin / B1 El uso de parámetros histológicos para evaluar la salud intestinal y hepática en pollos de engorde desafiados de forma aislada y simultánea con ácido ciclopiazónico y aflatoxina B1

Abstract Mycotoxins contaminate agricultural commodities, which contaminates animals. These toxins can damage vital organs, such as the liver, as well as the epithelial tissue. Among these mycotoxins are aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and cyclopiazonic acid (CPA), which can occur simultaneously in food. In broilers, mycotoxicosis has an economic impact due to several factors, such as low feed conversion rate, incidence of other diseases, and interference with reproductive capacity, all of which may lead to a public health problem. The aim of the present study was to histologically assess, through the I See Inside (ISI) method, harmful effects on broiler liver, duodenum, jejunum, and ileum in the presence of AFB1 and CPA isolatedly and simultaneously. Groups challenged with mycotoxins showed significant damage to both gut and liver fragments. All challenged-groups in all fragments impaired the parameters analyzed for intestinal epithelium. In the liver, AFB1 was predominantly harmful when the parameters were analyzed separately, but when analyzing the total ISI score, CPA was also found to be harmful to this organ. The other point analyzed was the great variation between the weights of the birds contaminated by mycotoxin while the negative control group presents a lesser variation.

Resumen Las micotoxinas contaminan los productos agrícolas, que a su vez contaminan a los animales. Estas toxinas pueden dañar órganos vitales, como el hígado y el tejido epitelial. Entre estas micotoxinas se encuentran la aflatoxina B1 (AFB1) y el ácido ciclopiazónico (CPA), que pueden hallarse simultáneamente en los alimentos. En los pollos de engorde, la micotoxicosis tiene un impacto económico debido a varios factores, como la baja tasa de conversión alimenticia, la incidencia de otras enfermedades y la interferencia de la capacidad reproductiva, que pueden llevar a un problema de salud pública. El objetivo de la presente investigación es la de evaluar histológicamente, a través del método "I See Inside" (ISI), los efectos nocivos sobre el hígado, duodeno, yeyuno e íleon de pollos de engorde en presencia de AFB1 y CPA de forma aislada y simultánea. Los grupos desafiados con micotoxinas presentaron un daño significativo tanto en el intestino como en los fragmentos del hígado. Todos los grupos tratados tuvieron alteraciones en los parámetros analizados para el epitelio intestinal. En el hígado, AFB1 fue predominantemente dañino cuando los parámetros se analizaron por separado, pero al examinar la puntuación ISI total, también se encontró que el CPA era perjudicial para este órgano. Otra cuestión que fue investigada fue la gran variación entre los pesos de las aves contaminadas por micotoxinas mientras el grupo de control negativo presentó una variación menor.

Occurrence and toxigenic potential of Aspergillus section Flavi on wheat and sorghum silages in Uruguay.

Species belonging to Aspergillus section Flavi occur naturally in crops and can cause food spoilage and/or toxin production. The aim of this study was to determine the occurrence and diversity of the species of Aspergillus section Flavi found in wheat and sorghum at harvest time and during silage storage, and to evaluate the toxigenic potential of the isolates to determine the contamination risk of mycotoxins in grains. Strains from Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus were found based on multi-gene phylogenetic analyses. This is the first report on the presence of A. parasiticus in wheat from Uruguay. Of the 80 isolates Aspergillus section Flavi, 30% produced aflatoxins (AFs), mainly type B1, and 25% produced cyclopiazonic acid (CPA). Within the isolates from wheat samples, 35% were AFs producers and 27.5% were CPA producers. Among the Aspergillus section Flavi isolates from sorghum, 25% were AFs producers while 22.5% were CPA producers. This work contributes to the knowledge of the species in crops and helps define appropriate strategies for the prevention and control of contamination with AFs and CPA by Aspergillus section Flavi fungi.

Identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis CtpF as a target for designing new antituberculous compounds.

The emergence of tuberculosis (TB) produced by multi-drug resistance (MDR) and extensively-drug resistance (XDR) Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), encourages the development of new antituberculous compounds, as well as the identification of novel drug targets. In this regard, plasma membrane P-type ATPases are interesting targets because they play a crucial role in ion homeostasis and mycobacterial survival. We focused on Mtb CtpF, a calcium P-type ATPase that responds to a broad number of intraphagosomal conditions, as a novel target. In this study, we evaluated the capacity of cyclopiazonic acid (CPA), a well-known inhibitor of the sarco-endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA), to inhibit the ATPase activity of CtpF and the Mtb growth demonstrating that CtpF is a druggable target. A homology modeling of CtpF was generated for molecular docking studies of CtpF with CPA and key pharmacophoric features were identified, which were used to perform a pharmacophore-based virtual screening of the ZINC database, and to identify CtpF inhibitor candidates. Molecular docking-based virtual screening and MM-BGSA calculations of candidates allowed identifying six compounds with the best binding energies. The compounds displayed in vitro minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) ranging from 50 to 100 µg/mL, growth inhibitions from 29.5 to 64.0% on Mtb, and inhibitions of Ca2+-dependent ATPase activity in Mtb membrane vesicles (IC50) ranging from 4.1 to 35.8 µM. The compound ZINC63908257 was the best candidate by displaying a MIC of 50 µg/mL and a Ca2+ P-type ATPase inhibition of 45% with IC50 = 4.4 µM. Overall, the results indicate that CtpF is a druggable target for designing new antituberculous compounds.

Characterization and competitive ability of non-aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus isolated from the maize agro-ecosystem in Argentina as potential aflatoxin biocontrol agents.

Aspergillus flavus is an opportunistic pathogen and may produce aflatoxins in maize, one of the most important crops in Argentina. A promising strategy to reduce aflatoxin accumulation is the biological control based on competitive exclusion. In order to select potential biocontrol agents among isolates from the maize growing region in Argentina, a total of 512 A. flavus strains were isolated from maize kernels and soil samples. Thirty-six per cent of the isolates from maize kernels did not produce detectable levels of aflatoxins, while 73% of the isolates from soil were characterized as non-aflatoxin producers. Forty percent and 49% of the isolates from maize kernels and soil samples, respectively, were not producers of cyclopiazonic acid (CPA). Sclerotia morphology was evaluated using Czapek Dox media. Eighty-six per cent of the isolates from maize kernels and 85% of the isolates from soil samples were L sclerotia morphotype (average diameter > 400 µm). The remaining isolates did not produce sclerotia. All isolates had MAT 1-1 idiomorph. The competitive ability of 9 non aflatoxigenic strains, 4 CPA(+) and 5 CPA(-), was evaluated in co-inoculations of maize kernels with an aflatoxigenic strain. All evaluated strains significantly (p < 0.05) reduced aflatoxin contamination in maize kernels. The aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) reduction ranged from 6 to 60%. The strain A. flavus ARG5/30 isolated from maize kernels would be a good candidate as a potential biocontrol agent to be used in maize, since it was characterized as neither aflatoxin nor CPA producer, morphotype L, MAT 1-1 idiomorph, and reduced AFB1 content in maize kernels by 59%. This study showed the competitive ability of potential aflatoxin biocontrol agents to be evaluated under field trials in a maize agro-ecosystem in Argentina.

Importance of SERCA2a on early isolated diastolic dysfunction induced by supravalvular aortic stenosis in rats

Cardiac remodeling is defined as changes in shape and function of the heart in response to aggression (pressure overload). The sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase cardiac isoform 2a (SERCA2a) is a known factor that influences function. A wide spectrum of studies report a decrease in SERCA2a in heart failure, but none evaluate it's the role in early isolated diastolic dysfunction in supravalvular aortic stenosis (AoS). Our hypothesis was that SERCA2a participates in such dysfunction. Thirty-day-old male Wistar rats (60-80 g) were divided into AoS and Sham groups, which were submitted to surgery with or without aorta clipping, respectively. After 6 weeks, the animals were submitted to echocardiogram and functional analysis by isolated papillary muscle (IPM) in basal condition, hypoxia, and SERCA2a blockage with cyclopiazonic acid at calcium concentrations of 0.5, 1.5, and 2.5 mM. Western-blot analyses were used for SERCA2a and phospholamban detection. Data analysis was carried out with Student's t-test and ANOVA. AoS enhanced left atrium and E and A wave ratio, with preserved ejection fraction. Basal condition in IPM showed similar increases in developed tension (DT) and resting tension (RT) in AoS, and hypoxia was similar between groups. After cyclopiazonic acid blockage, final DT was equally decreased and RT was similar between groups, but the speed of relaxation was decreased in the AoS group. Western-blot was uniform in all evaluations. The hypothesis was confirmed, since functional parameters regarding SERCA2a were changed in the AoS group.

Molecular and mycotoxigenic biodiversity of Aspergillus flavus isolated from Brazil nuts.

The objective of this study was to carry out a transcription analysis of eight genes belonging to the aflatoxin (AF) and cyclopiazonic acid (CPA) biosynthesis pathway, and to detect aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and CPA production in Aspergillus flavus strains isolated from Brazil nuts. Additionally, these genes were correlated with the different mycotoxigenic profiles of the same strains. Four previously identified A. flavus strains (ICB-01, ICB-151, ICB-161, and ICB-165) were grown on Brazil nut agar at 25°C for 10days. Mycotoxins were separated by high-performance liquid chromatography. Transcriptional analysis was performed by real-time RT-PCR using specific primers designed based on the conserved regions of two regulatory genes (aflR and aflS), three structural genes of the AFB1 biosynthesis pathway (aflH, aflJ and aflP), and three structural genes of the CPA biosynthesis pathway (maoA, dmaT and pks-nrps). The expression of most genes in the A. flavus isolates varied according to the mycotoxin profile of each strain. The most expressed genes in the aflatoxigenic strain ICB-151 were aflJ (77.11%) and aflH (32.75%), while the CPA-producing strain ICB-161 mainly expressed dmaT (100%), maoA (63.72%), aflS (43.52%), and aflR (42.63%). The ICB-01 isolate was a producer of AFB1 and CPA and the most expressed genes were aflS (47.79%), dmaT (42.77%), aflP (39.5%), and aflR (38.02%). ICB-198 did not produce any mycotoxin and exhibited lower expression of almost all genes analyzed. Furthermore, the ratio of aflS/aflR expression was correlated with the biosynthesis of AF and CPA in A. flavus strains producing exclusively AF or CPA or producing both AF and CPA. The ratio of aflS/aflR expression therefore seems to be related to the production of mycotoxins in Brazil nuts. Our results provide important data for the development of innovative and more cost-effective strategies to reduce and prevent AFB and CPA contamination in Brazil nuts.

Blocking the L-type Ca2+ channel (Cav 1.2) is the key mechanism for the vascular relaxing effect of Pterodon spp. and its isolated diterpene methyl-6α-acetoxy-7ß-hydroxyvouacapan-17ß-oate.

Pterodon spp. Vogel (Fabaceae), popularly known as "sucupira", has ethnopharmacological application which is described as having antispasmodic and relaxant effects. Hence, it was hypothesized that sucupira oil-resin (SOR) could induce smooth muscle relaxation. So, this study investigated the mechanisms involved in the vasorelaxant effect of SOR and its isolated diterpene (methyl-6α-acetoxy-7ß-hydroxyvouacapan-17ß-oate). Vascular reactivity experiments were performed using rat aortic rings (n=5-8) with (E+) or without endothelium (E-) in an isolated bath organ. The SOR (0-56 µg/mL) relaxed phenylephrine (E+: 86.7±7.1%; E-: 92.3±4.7%) and KCl contracted rings (E-: 97.1±2.8%). In the same way, diterpene (0-48 µg/mL) also relaxed phenylephrine (E+: 94.5±3.6%; E-: 92.2±3.4%) and KCl contracted rings (E-: 99.7±0.2%). The pre-incubation of arterial rings with cyclopiazonic acid (reticular Ca2+-ATPase inhibitor), tetraethylammonium (K+ channels blocker) or MDL-12,330A (adenylyl cyclesinhibitor) did not modify either SOR- or diterpeneinduced vasorelaxation. However, ODQ (guanylyl cyclase inhibitor) impaired only diterpene-induced vasorelaxation. SOR and diterpene significantly reduced CaCl2-induced contraction stimulated by Bay K8644 (1 µM), phenylephrine (0.1 µM) or KCl solution (40 mM). Computational molecular docking studies demonstrated that the vasodilator effect of diterpene relies on blocking the Cav 1.2 channel, and patch clamp results showed that diterpene substantially decreased the ionic current through Cav 1.2 in freshly dissociated vascular smooth muscle cells. These findings suggest that SOR and its isolated diterpene induce endothelium-independent vascular relaxation by blocking the L-type Ca2+ channel (Cav 1.2).

Entamoeba invadens: Identification of a SERCA protein and effect of SERCA inhibitors on encystation.

Calcium has an important role on signaling of different cellular processes, including growth and differentiation. Signaling by calcium also has an essential function in pathogenesis and differentiation of the protozoan parasites Entamoeba histolytica and Entamoeba invadens. However, the proteins of these parasites that regulate the cytoplasmic concentration of this ion are poorly studied. In eukaryotic cells, the calcium-ATPase of the SERCA type plays an important role in calcium homeostasis by catalyzing the active efflux of calcium from cytoplasm to endoplasmic reticulum. Here, we reported the identification of SERCA of E. invadens (EiSERCA). This protein contains a putative sequence for endoplasmic reticulum retention and all domains involved in calcium transport identified in mammalian SERCA. By immunofluorescence assays, an antibody against SERCA of E. histolytica detected EiSERCA in a vesicular network in the cytoplasm of E. invadens trophozoites, co-localizing with calreticulin. Interestingly, EiSERCA was redistributed close to plasma membrane during encystation, suggesting that this pump could participate in regulate the calcium concentration during this process. In addition, thapsigargin and cyclopiazonic acid, both specific inhibitors of SERCA, affected the number and structure of cysts, supporting the hypothesis that calcium flux mediated by SERCA has an important role in the life cycle of Entamoeba.

Identification of toxigenic Aspergillus species from diet dairy goat using a polyphasic approach / Identificação de espécies toxigênicas de Aspergillus isoladas da dieta de cabras leiteiras utilizando uma abordagem polifásica

Some species of filamentous fungi that infest agricultural commodities are able to produce mycotoxins, contaminating feed and animal products. The aim of this research was to identify the mycoflora present in the feed and forage for dairy goat and to isolate and characterize the Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus strains based on a morphological and molecular characterization and mycotoxigenic ability. The goat dairy diets were collected monthly from 11 goat milk farms, totaling 129 and 106 samples of concentrate and forage, respectively. For the isolation of the mycobiota the surface plating method was used. Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium were the main fungi producing mycotoxins isolated. The morphological and molecular characterization and mycotoxigenic ability were used for A. flavus and A. parasiticus identification. The Aspergillus spp. from feed 39% produced aflatoxins B1 and B2, 17% produced cyclopiazonic acid (CPA), 18% produced both toxins, and 42% had no toxigenic ability. Only 2.0% of the strains produced aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2, but no CPA. The strains from forage were producers of aflatoxins B1 and B2 (37%), CPA (14%), 14% of both mycotoxins, whereas 49% have shown no toxigenic ability. The aflD and aflR genes were used by PCR and PCR-RFLP, respectively. The presence of toxigenic species in samples of feed for lactating goats indicates a potential risk of contamination of dairy products, if they are exposed to environmental conditions favorable to fungal growth and mycotoxin production.

Algumas espécies de fungos filamentosos que infestam os produtos agrícolas e ração são capazes de produzir micotoxinas. O objetivo deste trabalho foi identificar a micoflora presente nos concentrados e volumosos utilizados na dieta de cabras leiteiras e isolar as espécies Aspergillus flavus e A. parasiticus, com base em uma caracterização morfológica e molecular e capacidade micotoxigênica. Os alimentos foram coletados mensalmente em 11 fazendas produtoras de leite de cabra, totalizando 129 e 106 amostras de concentrado e volumoso, respectivamente. Para o isolamento da micobiota, foi utilizado o método de plaqueamento de superfície. Aspergillus, Penicillium e Fusarium foram os principais gêneros de fungos produtores de micotoxinas isolados das amostras. A caracterização morfológica e molecular e capacidade micotoxigênica foram utilizadas para identificação de A. flavus e A. parasiticus. Das cepas Aspergillus spp isoladas do concentrado, 39% produziram aflatoxinas B1 e B2, 17% produziram ácido ciclopiazônico (ACP), 18% produziram ambas as toxinas e 42% não tinham capacidade toxigênica. Apenas 2,0% das cepas produziram aflatoxinas B1, B2, G1 e G2. As cepas de Aspergillus spp. isoladas do volumoso foram produtores de aflatoxinas B1 e B2 (37%), ACP (14%), sendo que 14% produziram ambas toxinas e 49% não foram produtoras. Os genes aflD e aflR foram utilizados para a PCR e a PCR-RFLP, respectivamente. A presença de espécies toxigênicas em amostras de alimentos destinados a caprinos em lactação indica um risco potencial de contaminação dos produtos lácteos por aflatoxinas e ACP, caso estes sejam expostos a condições ambientais favoráveis ao crescimento de fungos e produção de micotoxinas.

Identification of toxigenic Aspergillus species from diet dairy goat using a polyphasic approach / Identificação de espécies toxigênicas de Aspergillus isoladas da dieta de cabras leiteiras utilizando uma abordagem polifásica

Some species of filamentous fungi that infest agricultural commodities are able to produce mycotoxins, contaminating feed and animal products. The aim of this research was to identify the mycoflora present in the feed and forage for dairy goat and to isolate and characterize the Aspergillus flavusand A. parasiticusstrains based on a morphological and molecular characterization and mycotoxigenic ability. The goat dairy diets were collected monthly from 11 goat milk farms, totaling 129 and 106 samples of concentrate and forage, respectively. For the isolation of the mycobiota the surface plating method was used. Aspergillus, Penicillium,and Fusariumwere the main fungi producing mycotoxins isolated. The morphological and molecular characterization and mycotoxigenic ability were used for A. flavusand A. parasiticusidentification. The Aspergillusspp. from feed 39% produced aflatoxins B1 and B2, 17% produced cyclopiazonic acid (CPA), 18% produced both toxins, and 42% had no toxigenic ability. Only 2.0% of the strains produced aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2, but no CPA. The strains from forage were producers of aflatoxins B1 and B2 (37%), CPA (14%), 14% of both mycotoxins, whereas 49% have shown no toxigenic ability. The aflD and aflR genes were used by PCR and PCR-RFLP, respectively. The presence of toxigenic species in samples of feed for lactating goats indicates a potential risk of contamination of dairy products, if they are exposed to environmental conditions favorable to fungal growth and mycotoxin production.(AU)

Algumas espécies de fungos filamentosos que infestam os produtos agrícolas e ração são capazes de produzir micotoxinas. O objetivo deste trabalho foi identificar a micoflora presente nos concentrados e volumosos utilizados na dieta de cabras leiteiras e isolar as espécies Aspergillus flavuse A. parasiticus, com base em uma caracterização morfológica e molecular e capacidade micotoxigênica. Os alimentos foram coletados mensalmente em 11 fazendas produtoras de leite de cabra, totalizando 129 e 106 amostras de concentrado e volumoso, respectivamente. Para o isolamento da micobiota, foi utilizado o método de plaqueamento de superfície.Aspergillus, Penicilliume Fusariumforam os principais gêneros de fungos produtores de micotoxinas isolados das amostras. A caracterização morfológica e molecular e capacidade micotoxigênica foram utilizadas para identificação de A. flavus e A. parasiticus.Das cepas Aspergillusspp isoladas do concentrado, 39% produziram aflatoxinas B1 e B2, 17% produziram ácido ciclopiazônico (ACP), 18% produziram ambas as toxinas e 42% não tinham capacidade toxigênica. Apenas 2,0% das cepas produziram aflatoxinas B1, B2, G1 e G2. As cepas de Aspergillusspp. isoladas do volumoso foram produtores de aflatoxinas B1 e B2 (37%), ACP (14%), sendo que 14% produziram ambas toxinas e 49% não foram produtoras. Os genes aflD e aflR foram utilizados para a PCR e a PCR-RFLP, respectivamente. A presença de espécies toxigênicas em amostras de alimentos destinados a caprinos em lactação indica um risco potencial de contaminação dos produtos lácteos por aflatoxinas e ACP, caso estes sejam expostos a condições ambientais favoráveis ao crescimento de fungos e produção de micotoxinas.(AU)

Characterization of Aspergillus section Flavi isolated from organic Brazil nuts using a polyphasic approach.

Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa), an important non-timber forest product from Amazonia, is commercialized in worldwide markets. The main importers of this nut are North America and European countries, where the demand for organic products has grown to meet consumers concerned about food safety. Thus, the precise identification of toxigenic fungi is important because the Brazil nut is susceptible to colonization by these microorganisms. The present study aimed to characterize by polyphasic approach strains of Aspergillus section Flavi from organic Brazil nuts. The results showed Aspergillus flavus as the main species found (74.4%), followed by Aspergillus nomius (12.7%). The potential mycotoxigenic revealed that 80.0% of A. flavus were toxin producers, 14.3% of which produced only aflatoxin B (AFB), 22.85% of which produced only cyclopiazonic acid (CPA), and 42.85% produced both them. All strains of A. nomius were AFB and AFG producers and did not produce CPA. There is no consensus about what Aspergillus species predominates on Brazil nuts. Apparently, the origin, processing, transport and storage conditions of this commodity influence the species that are found. The understanding about population of fungi is essential for the development of viable strategies to control aflatoxins in organic Brazil nuts.

Fungi, mycotoxins and phytoalexin in peanut varieties, during plant growth in the field.

The aim of the present study was to analyze the mycobiota, occurrence of mycotoxins (aflatoxins and cyclopiazonic acid), and production of phytoalexin (trans-resveratrol) in two peanut varieties (Runner IAC 886 and Caiapó) during plant growth in the field. Climatic factors (rainfall, relative humidity and temperature) and water activity were also evaluated. The results showed a predominance of Fusarium spp. in kernels and pods, followed by Penicillium spp. and Aspergillus flavus. Aflatoxins were detected in 20% and 10% of samples of the IAC 886 and Caiapó varieties, respectively. Analysis showed that 65% of kernel samples of the IAC 886 variety and 25% of the Caiapó variety were contaminated with cyclopiazonic acid. trans-Resveratrol was detected in 6.7% of kernel samples of the IAC 886 variety and in 20% of the Caiapó variety. However, trans-resveratrol was found in 73.3% of leaf samples in the two varieties studied.

Avaliação da micoflora e ocorrência de micotoxinas em cascas de amendoim em diferentes estágios de maturação da vagem / Evaluation of mycoflora and occurrence of mycotoxins in peanut hulls at different pod maturation stages

As cascas de amendoim (Arachis hypogaea L.) são de grande importância para confecção de cama de frangos, de gado de leite e como fonte de fibras para ruminantes, portanto a elucidação dos mecanismos de contaminação por fungos toxigênicos e por micotoxinas em amendoim é imprescindível, especialmente para que medidas preventivas possam ser tomadas. Realizou-se, este trabalho, em Junqueirópolis, Estado de São Paulo, Brasil. Os principais fungos isolados nas cascas de amendoim foram Fusarium ssp. (78,75 por cento), Rhizopus ssp. (14,1 por cento) e A. flavus (11,75 por cento). No solo foram isolados Penicillium spp., Fusarium spp. e Aspergillus flavus, entre outros. Aflatoxinas foram detectadas em amostras de cascas de amendoim a partir do estágio de granação em concentrações que variaram de 5,42 μg/kg a 218,52 μg/kg. Ácido ciclopiazônico e fumonisinas B1 e B2 não foram detectadas. A presença de A. flavus e aflatoxinas nas amostras, revela a importância de um controle das cascas de amendoim antes de sua utilização. Boas práticas agrícolas são indicadas para região, uma vez que a contaminação das vagens ocorreu antes da colheita.

Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) hulls are very important because they are used as litter to poultry and dairy cattle and as fiber source to cattle. The elucidation of the peanuts contamination mechanisms by toxigenic fungi and their mycotoxins is vital, specially for prevention measurements. The peanuts total mycoflora and mycotoxin contamination were analyzed in plants sampled in Junqueirópolis, in São Paulo State (Brazil) at different stages of the pod maturity. The prevalent mycoflora in peanut hulls were Fusarium spp., Rhizopus spp. and Aspergillus flavus. In soil under the peanut crop, the genus Penicillium spp., Fusarium spp. and A. flavus were detected. Aflatoxins were detected in peanut hull samples since filling pod stage in concentrations from 5.42 μg/kg to 218.52 μg/kg. Cyclopiazonic acid and fumonisins were not detected. The A. flavus presence and the detection of aflatoxins indicate the importance of quality control of peanut hulls before their utilization, and the adoption of agricultural practices showed to avoid the contamination since the peanut pods contamination happened before the harvest.

Aflatoxins and cyclopiazonic acid in feed and milk from dairy farms in São Paulo, Brazil.

The occurrence of aflatoxins (AF) B1, B2, G1, G2 and cyclopiazonic acid (CPA) in feeds, and AFM1 and CPA in milk was determined in dairy farms located in the northeastern region of São Paulo state, Brazil, between October 2005 and February 2006. AF and CPA determinations were performed by HPLC. AFB1 was found in 42% of feed at levels of 1.0-26.4 µg kg(-1) (mean: 7.1 ± 7.2 µg kg(-1)). The concentrations of AFM1 in raw milk varied between 0.010 and 0.645 µg l(-1) (mean: 0.104 ± 0.138 µg l(-1)). Only one sample was above the tolerance limit adopted in Brazil (0.50 µg l(-1)) for AFM1 in milk. Regarding CPA in feed, six (12%) samples showed concentrations of 12.5-153.3 µg kg(-1) (mean: 57.6 ± 48.7 µg kg(-1)). CPA was detected in only three milk samples (6%) at levels of 6.4, 8.8 and 9.1 µg l(-1). Concentrations of aflatoxins and CPA in feed and milk were relatively low, although the high frequency of both mycotoxins indicates the necessity to continuously monitor dairy farms to prevent contamination of feed ingredients.