Do pregnancy and motherhood have an impact on cognitive functions in women.

Pregnancy and motherhood are some of the most physically and mentally challenging periods in a woman's life. The aim of current study was to examine aspects of cognitive functions in pregnancy and motherhood that are controversial in the literature. The study included 30 healthy pregnant women aged between 18-40 years in their second and third trimesters, 30 healthy controls (nulliparous and non-pregnant women) and 30 healthy mothers matched with the pregnant women for age, handedness and education level. Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale, Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale, Trail Making, Stroop, Digit Span, Verbal Fluency and Rey Auditory and Verbal Learning Tests (RAVLT) were applied to all participants. The pregnant group showed significantly lower performance in trail making, digit span, verbal fluency as well as RAVLT compared to other two groups suggesting deficiencies in cognitive areas such as attention, set-shifting, planning, learning, language functions, semantic memory, working memory, encoding memory and retrieval. A trend toward increased function in response inhibition was observed in the mothers. Regression analyses revealed that pregnancy significantly decreased performance in verbal fluency, trail making, and RAVLT. Our findings from rigorously selected participants may help comprehend alterations in cognitive functioning during pregnancy and motherhood, as well as shed light on the contradictory literature.

Effect of aerobic exercise on the improvement of executive function in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Objective: Aerobic exercise (AE) interventions are beginning to be used as an emerging adjunctive treatment modality in the treatment of children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). However, to date, there is no substantial evidence to support the improved effects of aerobic exercise intervention in children with ADHD aged 6-12 years. This study aims to investigate the effect of aerobic exercise therapy on executive function in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder aged 6-12 years. Method: We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis using PubMed and Web of Science. The cut-off date was June 1, 2023. The aim was to assess the impact of aerobic exercise interventions on children with ADHD and all randomized controlled trials eligible for aerobic exercise interventions for children with ADHD were included. Nine randomized controlled trials were screened for eligibility for systematic evaluation, and the nine studies were assessed for risk of bias using the PEDro score and the GRADE Quality of Evidence Evaluation System for quality grading of outcome indicators. After testing for heterogeneity, a random-effects model was selected for analysis. Finally, meta-analyses and regression analyses were performed on the core functions (inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and working memory) and subgroups of the nine studies on executive function using Revman 5.4 and Stata 16.0. Results: The risk of bias evaluation showed a mean PEDro score of 7.78, and of the nine studies, two were rated as having excellent methodological quality, while the remaining seven had a good level of evidence, and the GRADE evidence evaluation showed that the outcome indicators were all of moderate quality. Inhibitory control [SMD = 0.83,95% CI (0.37-1.29), Z = 3.51, p = 0.0005], cognitive flexibility [SMD = 0.65,95% CI (0.37-0.93), Z = 4.58, p < 0.00001], and working memory [SMD = 0.48,95% CI (0.02-0.95), Z = 2.03, p = 0.04] were statistically significant, with effect sizes of moderate or higher; furthermore, in subgroup analyses type of intervention, duration, intensity, and medication use had different effects on inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility, and the combined IC, CF statistic found that a single category of aerobic exercise ( ß = 0.867, p < 0.001), moderate intensity ( ß = 0.928, p < 0.001), 6-12 weeks (ß = 0.804, p < 0.001), 60-90 min ( ß = 0.894, p < 0.001), and the use of medication ( ß = 1.202, p = 0.002) were better for overall improvement in EF. Conclusion: Aerobic exercise therapy significantly improved executive functioning in children with ADHD, showing above moderate effect sizes especially in inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and working memory. Aerobic exercise therapy can be used as a reference in improving executive function in children with ADHD, but given the limitations of this study, it should be used with caution when applied in clinical settings.

What Chemsex does to the brain - neural correlates (ERP) regarding decision making, impulsivity and hypersexuality.

Chemsex describes the use of specific substances (methamphetamine, GHB/GBL, mephedrone, ketamine) which initiate or enhance sexual experiences and is mainly prevalent among men who have sex with men. Many Chemsex users experience somatic complications (for example sexually transmitted diseases) and sometimes adverse sociological, psychological, and neurological symptoms, such as depression, impulse control disorders or hypersexuality. Changes in impulsivity and deficits in executive functions have demonstrated to be associated with addiction and impulse control disorders as well as frontal brain dysfunction and behavioral control deficits. This study aims to explore the effects of neurophysiological correlates of inhibition and decision making in Chemsex users with an EEG paradigm using event-related potentials (N2, P3). 15 Chemsex users and 14 matched control subjects, all of them men who have sex with man, participated in an auditory Go/NoGo/Voluntary Selection EEG paradigm. In addition, clinical data (e.g. regarding depression), demographic information as well as measures of well-being and sexual behavior were collected. The results demonstrated that clinical symptoms, hypersexuality, and sexual risk behavior were more pronounced in Chemsex users compared to non-users. P3 amplitudes did not differ significantly between groups. However, the Chemsex users showed decreased electrophysiological N2 responses in fronto-central brain regions during decision-making, indicating compromised executive function and inhibitory control. The observed impairments may lead to increased risk behavior regarding drug abuse and hypersexuality. Understanding the neurobiological mechanisms can contribute to targeted interventions in order to mitigate the negative consequences of engaging in Chemsex and improve general well-being.

Exploring the Neuropsychological Correlates of Swallowing Disorders in People with Parkinson's Disease: a Cross-Sectional Study.

Around 80% of persons with Parkinson's disease (PD) present symptoms of dysphagia. Although cognitive impairment may contribute to dysphagia, few studies have investigated the association between the PD neuropsychological profile and objective measures of swallowing dysfunction. Since the swallowing function comprises involuntary but also voluntary actions, we hypothesize that specific measures of attention and executive functions can be underlined in PD-related dysphagia. Therefore, the aim of this study was to extensively investigate the correlation and the relationship between attentive and executive functions and safety/efficiency of pharyngeal phase of swallowing in people with PD. All participants received a fiberoptic endoscopic evaluation of swallowing and were evaluated using the Penetration Aspiration Scale (PAS); the Yale Pharyngeal Residue Severity Rating Scale (IT-YPRSRS), and the Functional Oral Intake Scale (FOIS-IT). Participants also underwent a neuropsychological assessment covering global cognitive status, attention, and frontal executive functions. Correlations and associations between neuropsychological measures and swallowing components were calculated. Twenty-one participants with PD (mean age 69.38 ± 6.58 years, mean disease duration 8.38 ± 5.31 years; mean MDS-UPDRS III 43.95 ± 24.18) completed all evaluations. The most significant correlations were found between attentive functions (i.e., Stroop Time), and executive functions (i.e., Raven's Progressive Matrices, Digit Backward and Semantic Fluency), and FOIS-IT, PAS, and IT-YPRSRS sinuses and valleculae. These associations were not influenced by disease duration. These results suggest that a dysfunction to attentional processes and/or to executive functions can contribute to penetration and the presence of pharyngeal residue in participants with middle-stage PD.

Understanding social cognition in children with cerebral palsy: exploring the relationship with executive functions and the intervention outcomes in a randomized controlled trial.

Children with Cerebral Palsy (CP) experience Social Cognition (SC) difficulties, which could be related to executive functioning. While motor interventions are common, there is limited knowledge about the impact of cognitive interventions on SC in this population. This study examined the relationship between SC and Executive Function (EF) skills and the effectiveness of an EF intervention that included some SC tasks for improving SC in children with CP. SC and EF domains were assessed in 60 participants with CP (30 females; 8-12 years). The relationship between SC and EF baseline scores was analyzed by bivariate correlations and contingency tables. Participants were matched by age, sex, motor ability, and intelligence quotient and randomized into intervention or control groups. The intervention group underwent a 12-week home-based computerized EF intervention. Analysis of covariance was used to examine differences in SC components between groups at post-intervention and 9 months after. Significant positive correlations were found between the SC and EF scores. The frequencies of impaired and average scores in SC were distributed similarly to the impaired and average scores in EFs. The intervention group showed significant improvements in Affect Recognition performance post-intervention, which were maintained at the follow-up assessment, with a moderate effect size. Long-term improvements in Theory of Mind were observed 9 months after. CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights the association between SC and EFs. A home-based computerized cognitive intervention program improves SC in children with CP. Including SC tasks in EF interventions may lead to positive short- and long-term effects for children with CP. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT04025749 retrospectively registered on 19 July 2019. WHAT IS KNOWN: • Executive functions and social cognition are associated with social and community participation in people with cerebral palsy. • A home-based computerized cognitive intervention can improve the executive functioning of children with cerebral palsy. WHAT IS NEW: • Social cognition performance is related to core and higher-order executive functions. • A home-based computerized executive function intervention, including social cognition tasks, has positive short- and long-term effects on social cognition skills in children with cerebral palsy.

Normative data for executive function tests in an Ecuadorian Waranka minority population.

Objective: To generate normative data (ND) for executive functions tests in the Waranka minority population of Ecuador. Method: Four-hundred participants aged 6-17 completed the Symbol-Digit Modalities Test (SDMT), Trail-Making Test (TMT), Modified-Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (M-WCST), and Test of Colors-Words (STROOP). Scores were normed using multiple linear regressions, including age, age2, natural logarithm of mean parent education (MPE), sex, bilingualism, and two-way interactions as predictors. Results: Age by MPE and Age2 by MPE interactions arose for SDMT, so that children with illiterate parents scored lower than those with literate parents. Girls scored higher in SDMT. All TMT and M-WCST scores were influenced by age2. Age by MPE interaction was found for TMT-A, so that children with higher MPE went faster; and age by bilingualism interaction for TMT-B, so that more bilingual children needed less time. Stroop-Word and Color were influenced by age2 by MPE interaction, so that children, while older, scored higher, especially those with higher MPE. Also, age2 by sex interaction arose, so that girls increased scores curvilinearly while boys linearly. Word-Color was influenced by age, while Stroop-interference by age2. Age by MPE interaction was found for MCST-Categories and Perseveration, so that perseverations decreased to then increased, especially in those with illiterate parents. M-WCST-Category scores increased to then decrease later on age in children with illiterate parents. Z-scores calculated through indigenous ND were significantly lower than generated through non-indigenous norms. Conclusions: ND for minority populations are critical since Waranka sample performed worse when using non-indigenous norms for z-score calculation.

[Application of the Trail Making Test in the schizophrenia research]. / A Trail Making Teszt alkalmazása a szkizofrénia-kutatásban.

Even the Kraepelinian concept of dementia praecox suggests a link between schizophrenia and various cognitive deficits. Although cognitive impairment is not a fundamental symptom of schizophrenia, it is considered to be one of the basic features of the disease. The deficit can affect a number of cognitive domains and is most often specific. One of the most pronounced cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia is impairment in attentional and executive functions. The Trail Making Test (TMT) is a screening test commonly used in the clinic that is very sensitive to impairments in attention and executive functions. The aim of the present study is to summarise the research conducted in the last five years in which the Trail Making Test has been used to screen schizophrenics. A search was conducted in the PubMed database using the keywords "schizophrenia" and "Trail Making Test". A total of 43 relevant studies have been published on this topic since 2018. A review of the research on this topic shows that the TMT can be used to identify cognitive deficits in schizophrenics, affecting executive functions and attention. It also shows that schizophrenic patients performed significantly worse on the test than healthy individuals.

Emotional eating, internet overuse, and alcohol intake among college students: a pilot study with virtual reality.

Introduction: The term emotional eating (EE) describes the tendency to eat as an automatic response to negative emotions and has been linked to anxiety and depression, common symptoms among the university population. The EE tendencies have also been associated with excessive internet use and an increase in alcohol intake among young university students. Methods: The aim of this study is to examine the relationship between the tendency towards EE and other health-compromising behaviors, such as excessive internet use or high alcohol intake. Additionally, it aims to investigate the association of these risky behaviors with the participants' performance level in a virtual reality (VR) task that assesses their executive functioning, and to assess impulsivity and levels of anxiety and depression. Results: The results associate EE with excessive internet (r = 0.332; p < 0.01). use but not with alcohol consumption. Alcohol consumption was not associated with anxiety, depression, or impulsivity, but it was related to altered executive functions in the VR task: flexibility and working memory explained 24.5% of the variance. By contrast, EE and internet overuse were not related to executive function but were associated with impulsivity, depression, and anxiety. Impulsivity and depressive symptoms accounted for 45% of the variance in EE. Depression, trait anxiety and impulsivity explained 40.6% of the variance in internet overuse. Discussion: The results reveal distinct patterns of psychological and neuropsychological alterations associated with alcohol consumption compared to emotional eating (EE) and excessive internet use. These findings underscore significant differences in the contributing factors between addictions and other substance-free addictive behaviors. For a deeper understanding of the various contributing factors to EE in college students, further research is recommended.

Interventions to improve executive functions in children aged 3 years and under: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Early executive functioning (EF) skills are foundational capabilities that predict school readiness, academic development and psychiatric risk. Early interventions enhancing these capabilities could have critical import in improving outcomes. However, to develop interventions, it is necessary to identify specific EF skills that will vary with child age. Thus, we aimed to examine the characteristics and efficacy of interventions targeting EF in infancy and early childhood up to age 3. METHODS: A comprehensive search of PubMed, Embase, CINAHL and APA PsycINFO databases was performed for studies published before December 2022. Randomized and non-randomized studies of interventions designed to improve at least one EF skill in children ≤3 years were included. EF skills included attentional control, inhibition/self-regulation, activity initiation, working memory, cognitive flexibility, planning ability, problem-solving and performance monitoring. We independently extracted data, used the revised Cochrane Risk-of-Bias tool to assess the quality of the evidence and conducted Synthesis Without Meta-analysis (SWiM). The overall quality of the evidence and the strength of recommendations was determined using elements of the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) approach. RESULTS: Thirty-five studies met inclusion criteria (original n = 7467). Studies were highly variable in the EF skill targeted, target subject (i.e., child, parent and teacher), nature and dosage of the intervention, and timing of outcome assessment. Most interventions focused on improving impulse control and self-regulation. The overall quality of evidence was low to moderate with a high risk of bias, though six studies had low risk of bias but yielded mixed findings of efficacy. CONCLUSIONS: The relatively small number of early EF intervention studies uses such variable methods that there is currently no converging evidence of efficacy to recommend a specific intervention. Thus, findings support the need for a more systematic, targeted approach to the design and implementation of early EF interventions for target populations.

Investigating the relationship between resting-state EEG microstates and executive functions: A null finding.

Recent advances in cognitive neurosciences suggest that intrinsic brain networks dynamics are associated with cognitive functioning. Despite this emerging perspective, limited research exists to validate this hypothesis. This Registered Report aimed to specifically test the relationship between intrinsic brain spatio-temporal dynamics and executive functions. Resting-state EEG microstates were used to assess brain spatio-temporal dynamics, while a comprehensive battery of nine cognitive function tasks was employed to evaluate executive functions in 140 participants. We hypothesized that microstates (class C and D) metrics would correlate with an executive functions composite score. Contrary to expectations, our hypotheses were not supported by the data. We however observed a small, non-significant trend with a negative correlation between microstate D occurrences and executive functions scores (r = -.18, 95% CI [-.33, -.01]) which however did not meet the adjusted threshold for significance. In light of the inconclusive or minor effect sizes observed, the assertion that intrinsic brain networks dynamics - as measured by resting-state EEG microstate metrics - are a reliable signature of executive functioning remains unsupported.

Training kindergarten children on learning from their mistakes.

This study investigated whether feedback on their errors and speed improves kindergarten children's performance in an executive function (EF) task. Children from Switzerland (N = 213, 49% female, Mage = 6.4 years) were tested in the Hearts and Flowers task pre- and post-training and trained either on a variant of this task with (n = 71) or without feedback (n = 72), or on a control learning task (n = 70). The feedback group performed more efficiently than the no-feedback group during the intervention and partially also in the post-test. Both EF training groups performed more efficiently than the control group in the post-test. These results suggest that kindergarten children detect and monitor their errors and even get better at it given the opportunity to practice. Moreover, they benefit additionally from external feedback. Integrating feedback into computerized cognitive training (and learning apps) could be a potential avenue for interventions in school settings.

Comparable cerebral cortex activity and gait performance in elderly hypertensive and healthy individuals during dual-task walking: A fNIRS study.

BACKGROUND: Hypertension increases the risk of cognitive impairment and related dementia, causing impaired executive function and unusual gait parameters. However, the mechanism of neural function illustrating this is unclear. Our research aimed to explore the differences of cerebral cortex activation, gait parameters, and working memory performance between healthy older adults (HA) and older hypertensive (HT) patients when performing cognitive and walking tasks. METHOD: A total of 36 subjects, including 12 healthy older adults and 24 older hypertensive patients were asked to perform series conditions including single cognitive task (SC), single walking task (SW), and dual-task (DT), wearing functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) equipment and Intelligent Device for Energy Expenditure and Activity equipment to record cortical hemodynamic reactions and various gait parameters. RESULTS: The left somatosensory cortex (L-S1) and bilateral supplementary motor area (SMA) showed higher cortical activation (p < .05) than HA when HT performed DT. The intragroup comparison showed that HT had higher cortical activation (p < .05) when performing DT as SW. The cognitive performance of HT was significantly worse (p < .05) than HA when executing SC. The activation of the L-S1, L-M1, and bilateral SMA in HT were significantly higher during SW (p < .05). CONCLUSION: Hypertension can lead to cognitive impairment in the elderly, including executive function and walking function decline. As a result of these functional declines, elderly patients with hypertension are unable to efficiently allocate brain resources to support more difficult cognitive interference tasks and need to meet more complex task demands by activating more brain regions.

Effects of Executive Functions Training in Primary School Students with Borderline Intellectual Functioning Through a Multi-Method, Multi-Informant Intervention: A Pilot Study.

Objective: Borderline Intellectual Functioning (BIF) impacts cognitive functioning and adaptive behavior. Recent studies have demonstrated the efficacy of Executive Functions trainings to support daily-living skills in several clinical populations. However, although the relationship between Executive Functions and BIF has been studied, few studies have explored the effects of cognitive enhancement training for BIF children. Given the pivotal significance of Executive Functions in learning, orchestrating cognitive processes, and modulating affective and behavioral responses, our study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of cognitive enhancement training targeting Executive Functions in a group of 23 children diagnosed with Borderline Intellectual Functioning devoid of neurodevelopmental impairments. Method: We included a multiple assessment based on several informants (children, teachers, parents, and tutors) and provided individualized cognitive enhancement training focused on Executive Functions through both digital and analog activities. The training was highly customized, structured and monitored at various stages of the process activities. The training was composed of 20 sessions, each lasting 2 hours, held twice a week for each child. Results: The obtained results confirmed the efficacy of cognitive enhancement training in improving Executive Functions, the primary target of the intervention, particularly in attention, verbal fluency, planning, inhibitory control, working memory, and flexibility. Furthermore, improvements were observed by all the informants in other cognitive functions, learning, and adaptive behaviors. Conclusions: Our study contributes to the understanding of BIF, emphasizing the efficacy of neuropsychological enhancement through personalized training for EF.

Poststroke cognitive outcome is better accounted for by white matter abnormalities automated segmentation than visual analysis.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The association between white matter abnormalities (WMA) and cognitive decline previously reported in poststroke patients has been mainly documented using visual scales. However, automated segmentation of WMA provides a precise determination of the volume of WMA. Nonetheless, it is rarely used in the stroke population and its potential advantage over visual scales is still unsettled. The objective of this study was to examine whether automated segmentation of WMA provides a better account than the visual Fazekas and Wahlund scales of the decline in executive functions and processing speed in stroke patients. METHODS: The analyses were conducted on the 358 patients of the GRECogVASC cohort with an MRI performed at six months poststroke in the Amiens center. WMA were visually analyzed using the Fazekas (subcortical abnormalities) and Wahlund scales. Segmentation was performed using LST (3.0.3). Following preliminary studies to determine the optimal segmentation threshold, we examined the relationship between cognitive status and WMA volume computed at each threshold using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves. Finally, we assessed the ability of both Fazekas and Wahlund visual scores and WMA volume to account for cognitive scores by using a bivariate Pearson correlation analysis, comparing correlation coefficients with the Fisher transformation and repeating correlation analysis after adjustment for the lesion volume. RESULTS: Increasing the threshold led to an underestimation of WMA (P=0.0001) (significant for a threshold ≥0.2) and an improvement in correct rejection of signal changes in the stroke cavity (P=0.02) (significant for a threshold ≤0.5), susceptibility artifacts (P=0.002) (significant for a threshold ≤0.6), and corticospinal degeneration (P=0.03) (significant for a threshold ≤0.5). WMA volume decreased with increasing threshold (P=0.0001). Areas under the curve (AUC) did not differ according to the threshold (processing speed: P=0.85, executive cognitive functions: P=0.7). Correlation coefficients between cognitive scores and WMA were higher for WMA volume than the Fazekas (processing speed: Z=-3.442, P=0.001; executive functions: Z=-2.751, P=0.006) and Wahlund scores (processing speed: Z=-3.615, P=0.0001; executive functions: Z=-2.769, P=0.006). Adjustment for lesion volume did not alter the correlations with WMA volume (processing speed: r=-0.327 [95%CI: -0.416; -0.223], P=0.0001; executive functions: r=-0.262 [95%CI: -0.363; -0.150], P=0.0001). CONCLUSION: This study shows that WMA volume assessed by automated segmentation provides a better account of cognitive disorders than visual analysis. This should favor its wider use to refine imaging determinants of poststroke cognitive disorders.

Training to deal with distractions and conflicting situations in activities of daily living after traumatic brain injury (TBI): Preliminary evidence from a single-case experimental design study.

TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03958487.

The Effects of Multidisciplinary Intensive Rehabilitation on Cognitive and Executive Functions in Parkinson's Disease: A Clinical Database Analysis.

Background/Objectives: This study is based on data collected from a medical health record review to assess whether multidisciplinary intensive rehabilitation treatment in Parkinson's disease (PD) patients can improve global cognitive functioning and executive functions. Methods: The data related to PD patients were extrapolated from a clinical database called "NeuroRehab". A total of 104 PD patients (51 males; 53 females) performed 6 weeks of multidisciplinary intensive rehabilitation treatment in clinical practice from January 2019 to May 2023. This training program was characterized by three daily sessions of 60 min of activities (muscle relaxation and stretching exercises, moderate physical aerobic exercise, and occupational therapy). The patients were classified and stratified according to disease severity (according to the Hoehn and Yahr scale), postural instability and gait difficulty (PIGD) or tremor-dominant (TD) subtypes, disease duration (DD), and the presence of dyskinesias. The effect of multidisciplinary intensive rehabilitation treatment on cognitive and executive functions was evaluated through the administration of cognitive tests, such as the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), and Frontal Assessment Battery (FAB). All the parameters were evaluated at the baseline (T0) and at the end of the rehabilitation program (T1). Results: The multidisciplinary intensive rehabilitation treatment significantly improved cognitive performance. The MMSE, MoCA, and FAB test scores after the rehabilitation program (T1) were significantly higher compared to the scores obtained at the baseline (T0). Moreover, further analyses on subgroups of the patients who scored below the cut-off in the MMSE showed that at least 50% of patients overcame the cut-off score. Interestingly, the same analyses performed for the MoCA and FAB revealed a higher rate of improvement in cognitive functions, with normal scores in both tests after 6 weeks of multidisciplinary intensive rehabilitation treatment. Conclusions: This study revealed the potential effects of a 6-week multidisciplinary rehabilitation program in improving cognitive status in a PD inpatient cohort.

Age-related changes in the effects of induced positive affect on executive control in younger and older adults-evidence from a task-switching paradigm.

Positive affect has been shown to promote task-switching performance in healthy young adults. Given the well-documented age-related decline in executive functioning, we asked whether induced positive affect also helps to improve task-switching performance in older adults. Sixty-eight younger and older adults performed a switching task before and after they had watched cartoon clips (positive affect group) or documentaries (neutral affect group). Positive affect was associated with reduced error rates across all trial types in both age groups. In older adults, the increase in accuracy came at the expense of slower response times for task-switch trials, resulting in greater switch costs. This pattern of findings is inconsistent with the popular notion that positive affect supports greater cognitive flexibility. Instead, positive affect may trigger adjustments in response control settings - such as a shift in the speed-accuracy trade-off toward more cautious responding - depending on the experienced level of task difficulty.

Staying self-regulated in the classroom: The role of children's executive functions and situational factors.

BACKGROUND: Self-regulation is crucial for children's learning and development. Several studies have explored children's inter-individual differences in self-regulation, but little is known about sources of intra-individual variation. AIMS: This study addressed the variability of children's self-regulation across typical classroom situations and how this might be associated with children's executive functions (EFs). SAMPLE: The study included 148 children (54.7% girls; Mage = 56.73 months). METHODS: Self-regulation was assessed with an observational measure in teacher-led and child-led activities within naturalistic classroom settings. Children's EFs were assessed with direct assessments at the start and end of the school year. RESULTS: Linear mixed-effect models showed that children demonstrated higher levels of self-regulation in child-led in comparison with teacher-led activities. Children with higher levels of EFs at the start of the school year showed less variation across teacher-led and child-led activities in comparison with children with lower levels of EFs. Regarding other aspects of the classroom context, neither the group size in which the activity took place nor which school subject it was focused on were associated with children's self-regulation. However, in teacher-led activities the type of interaction involved in the activity and the type of task influenced children's self-regulation. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that children who start school with higher levels of EFs are more able to adapt to different situations, highlighting the importance of fostering these skills in early childhood. In turn, children with lower levels of EFs may need additional support from teachers to remain self-regulated across different contexts.

What does the Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment-II (NEPSY-II) measure in children ages 7 to 12? A structural and psychometric analysis.

The Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment - II (NEPSY-II) is a widely used assessment battery in pediatric settings, but its internal structure has not been adequately examined. This study employed a rational, empirical approach to examine the construct validity of 23 NEPSY-II subtest scores from children ages 7-12 (M = 9.99, SD = 2.76) in the NEPSY-II norming sample (N = 600; 50% girls). Competing higher-order models based on prior research, hypothesized NEPSY-II domains, and conceptual subtest classifications were evaluated via confirmatory factor analysis and a sequential approach to model comparisons. The results supported the multidimensionality of NEPSY-II subtests and the organization of subtests by hypothesized neuropsychological domains. The best fitting model included a general factor and four first-order factors. Factor loadings from the general factor to first-order factors were very strong. However, general factor loadings for most subtests were less than .50 (range = .21-.69, M = .44), and domain-specific effects for all subtests, independent of the general factor, were even lower (range = .00-.45, M = .44). Interestingly, all subtests demonstrated strong subtest-specific effects, but it is not clear what construct(s) the subtest-specific effects represent. Findings support NEPSY-II authors' emphasis on subtest-level interpretations rather than composite-level interpretations and highlight that NEPSY-II subtest scores should be interpreted carefully and with caution.

Impaired episodic verbal memory recall after 1 week and elevated forgetting in children after mild traumatic brain injury - results from a short-term longitudinal study.

Objective: There is preliminary evidence that children after traumatic brain injury (TBI) have accelerated long-term forgetting (ALF), i.e., an adequate learning and memory performance in standardized memory tests, but an excessive rate of forgetting over delays of days or weeks. The main aim of this study was to investigate episodic memory performance, including delayed retrieval 1 week after learning, in children after mild TBI (mTBI). Methods: This prospective study with two time-points (T1: 1 week after injury and T2: 3-6 months after injury), included data of 64 children after mTBI and 57 healthy control children aged between 8 and 16 years. We assessed episodic learning and memory using an auditory word learning test and compared executive functions (interference control, working memory, semantic fluency and flexibility) and divided attention between groups. We explored correlations between memory performance and executive functions. Furthermore, we examined predictive factors for delayed memory retrieval 1 week after learning as well as for forgetting over time. Results: Compared to healthy controls, patients showed an impaired delayed recall and recognition performance 3-6 months after injury. Executive functions, but not divided attention, were reduced in children after mTBI. Furthermore, parents rated episodic memory as impaired 3-6 months after injury. Additionally, verbal learning and group, but not executive functions, were predictive for delayed recall performance at both time-points, whereas forgetting was predicted by group. Discussion: Delayed recall and forgetting over time were significantly different between groups, both post-acutely and in the chronic phase after pediatric mTBI, even in a very mildly injured patient sample. Delayed memory performance should be included in clinical evaluations of episodic memory and further research is needed to understand the mechanisms of ALF.