Blended Psychological Interventions for Emotional Disorders in Youth: Acceptability and Intention to Use in a Sample of Portuguese Psychologists.

INTRODUCTION: The rise of mental health problems in youth highlights the need for accessible and cost-effective psychological interventions. Blended interventions, which combine face-to-face and online sessions, can be an adequate response to the increase in demands for youth mental health services. Although this can be a promising approach, effective dissemination depends on the professionals´ acceptance. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to explore the acceptability of and intention to use blended interventions by psychologists working with children with emotional disorders and to examine their predictors, including previous knowledge, expectancies (i.e., performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions), and attitudes toward evidence-based practices. METHODS: The sample consisted of 76 Portuguese psychologists (Mage = 37.26 years, SD = 10.47; 92.1% female) working in youth mental health services. The participants completed an online protocol to evaluate the different dimensions included in the study. RESULTS: The results showed that most participants demonstrated moderate to high acceptability of blended psychological interventions for emotional disorders in youth and intend to use them in the future. Regression analysis showed that performance expectancy and positive attitudes toward evidence-based practices were significant predictors of acceptance of blended interventions and that social influence was a significant predictor of both acceptance of and intention to use blended interventions. CONCLUSION: These results emphasize the importance of sharing the findings of blended interventions, changing professionals' attitudes toward evidencebased practices, and collaborating more closely with organizations and institutions to advance standards that encourage the adoption of this intervention format.

Evaluación del Modelo de Predisposición Adquirida para consumo de alcohol en adolescentes / Evaluation of the Acquired Preparedness Model for Alcohol Use in Adolescents / Avaliação do Modelo de Predisposição Adquirida para o consumo de álcool em adolescentes

Durante la adolescencia se observan altas tasas de consumo elevado de alcohol. El Modelo de Predisposición Adquirida (mpa) postula que la confluencia de factores de personalidad (como la impulsividad) y factores psicosociales (como las expectativas hacia el alcohol [ea]) predice el consumo de sustancias. Algunos resultados previos respaldan el mpa para explicar el uso de alcohol en adolescentes argentinos; sin embargo, no queda claro el modo en que distintas dimensiones de impulsividad se asocian con el uso de alcohol en esta etapa del desarrollo. El objetivo de este trabajo fue examinar, en una muestra de adolescentes argentinos, el rol mediador de las ea en la relación entre cinco dimensiones de impulsividad rasgo, medidas con la escala upps-p y la frecuencia de Consumo Episódico Elevado de Alcohol (ceea). Materiales y métodos: participaron 427 adolescentes de 13 a 18 años (58 % mujeres; M edad = 15.72, de = 1.48), escolarizados en el nivel medio (91.1 % en gestión privada). Resultados: apoyando el mpa, la tendencia a actuar precipitadamente bajo estados emocionales intensos (tanto positivos como negativos) se asoció a una mayor frecuencia de ceea vía una mayor anticipación de efectos positivos del consumo de alcohol. Urgencia positiva tuvo, además, un efecto directo sobre la frecuencia de ceea. Conclusiones: esta información puede ser de utilidad para el desarrollo de intervenciones destinadas a disminuir el desarrollo o mantenimiento de las positivas y, de esta manera, reducir el consumo de alcohol en los adolescentes.

High rates of heavy alcohol use are observed among adolescents. The Acquired Preparedness Model (apm) posits that the confluence of personality factors (e.g., impulsivity) and psychosocial factors (e.g., alcohol expectancies [aes]) predicts substance use. Research supports the use of the apmto explain alcohol use in Argentinean adolescents; however, how different dimensions of impulsivity are associ-ated with alcohol use at this developmental stage is unclear. This study was designed to examine the mediational role of aes in the relationship between multiple dimensions of trait-like impulsivity using the upps-p scale and the frequency of heavy episodic drinking (hed) in Argentinean adolescents. Materials and Methods: In this study, 427 adolescents (58% were women) with a mean age of 15.72 ± 1.48 years (range, 13­18 years) were enrolled. Results: In line with the associations proposed by the apm, this study showed that the tendency to act rashly under intense negative and positive emotions was positively associated with the frequency of hed, via the anticipation of more positive effects of alcohol use. Positive urgency also had a direct effect on the frequency of hed. This information may be useful in developing interventions to reduce positive aes to decrease adolescent alcohol use.

na adolescência observam-se altas taxas de consumo de álcool. O Modelo de Predisposição Adquirida (mpa) postula que a confluência de fatores de personalidade (como a impulsividade) e fatores psicossociais (como expectativas em relação ao álcool [ea]) prediz o uso de substâncias. Alguns resul-tados anteriores corroboram o mpa para explicar o consumo de álcool em adolescentes argentinos; no entanto, não está claro como as diferentes dimensões da impulsividade estão associadas ao consumo de álcool nesta fase do desenvolvimento. O objetivo deste trabalho foi examinar, em uma amostra de adolescentes argentinos, o papel mediador da ea na relação entre cinco dimensões do traço de impul-sividade, medidas com a escala upps-p e a frequência de Consumo Episódico Elevado de Álcool (ceea). Materiais e métodos: participaram 427 adolescentes de 13 a 18 anos (58% mulheres; M idade = 15,72; dp = 1,48), matriculados no ensino médio (91,1% em escola particular). Resultados: apoiando o mpa, mostra-se que a tendência a agir precipitadamente sob estados emocionais intensos ­tanto positivos quanto negativos­ foi associada a uma maior frequência de ceea por meio de uma maior antecipação dos efeitos positivos do consumo de álcool. A urgência positiva também teve efeito direto na frequência de ceea. Conclusões: esta informação pode ser útil para o desenvolvimento de intervenções que visem reduzir o desenvolvimento ou manutenção de ea positivas e, desta forma, reduzir o consumo de álcool em adolescentes.

Evidence of successive negative contrast in terrestrial toads (Rhinella arenarum): central or peripheral effect?

Prior research with terrestrial toads (Rhinella arenarum) in a water-reinforced instrumental situation indicated a direct relationship between acquisition rate and reward magnitude. However, a reward downshift produced a gradual adjustment of instrumental performance and a rapid adjustment of consummatory performance, rather than the abrupt and transient deterioration of behavior typical of a successive negative contrast effect. In Experiment 1, using a two-chamber box, a downshift from deionized water (which supports maximal rehydration) to 250-mM sodium chloride solution (which supports a lower rehydration), also yielded a gradual adjustment of instrumental behavior. In this experiment, animals received one trial per day and were allowed 300 s of access to the reward in the goal box. Experiment 2 used the same procedure, except that animals were allowed access to the solution in the goal box for 600 s. Under these conditions, reward downshift led to longer latencies (instrumental) and lower rehydration levels (consummatory) than those of unshifted controls, providing evidence for successive negative contrast. Unlike in similar experiments with mammals, the effect was not transient, but persisted relatively unmodified over twelve daily postshift trials. In this case, the possibility of adaptation of the peripheral mechanisms for water uptake is considered. The comparative relevance of these results is discussed in terms of habit formation versus expectancy-guided behavior in vertebrate learning.

Effects of Gender Stereotypes on Balance Performance and Learning in Men.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of gender stereotypes on the performance and learning of a balance task in men. Before practice, forty-eight participants received instructions involving the comparison of balance between males and females: males normally perform worse than females (stereotype threat condition - ST), females usually perform worse than males (stereotype lift condition - SL), or no instructions regarding gender stereotypes (control condition). One day later, they performed a retention test. The results show that the SL group outperformed the other groups during practice, but not retention. ST participants reported lower perceived competence. The findings show that gender stereotypes can affect perceptions of competence and balance performance, but not balance learning, in men.

Psychometric Properties of the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire (AEQ-A) in psychology students from Mar del Plata, Argentina / Propriedades psicométricas do Questionário de Expectativas para o Consumo de Álcool (AEQ-A) em Estudantes de Psicologia de Mar del Plata, Argentina / Propiedades psicométricas del cuestionario de expectativas hacia el consumo de alcohol (AEQ-A) en estudiantes de psicología de Mar del Plata, Argentina

Abstract The aim of this article was to analyze the psychometric properties of an adapted version of the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire Adolescent (AEQ-A) in university students from Mar del Plata city, Argentina. Expectancies about the effects of alcohol refer to the beliefs that people hold about the consequences of alcohol consumption on behavior. Expectancies have been related to drinking initiation and maintenance, and to habitual drinking patterns. Although several questionnaires have been developed to measure expectancies, the AEQ-A has been one of the most frequently used. Studies in different cultural that, given expectancies' cultural variability, the questionnaire must be adapted to each particular context. A version of the AEQ-A previously validated in Mar del Plata, Argentina, was used, consisting of 40 items measured on a (true / false) dichotomous scale. The sample consisted of 1076 psychology students from the National University of Mar del Plata, Argentina. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyzes were performed. The factorial analysis resulted in six factors containing 37 items. Internal consistency of each subscale was adequate. Concurrent validity was satisfactory inasmuch as scores on the subscales about beliefs associated with positive effects of consumption in social situations relate to heavy episodic drinking. Instruments like this one to evaluate expectancies, will allow the study of psychosocial factors associated with consumption and provide useful information to develop prevention strategies.

Resumo O objetivo do presente trabalho foi analisar as propriedades psicométricas (estrutura fatorial, consistência interna e validade concorrente) de uma versão adaptada do Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire Adolescents (AEQ-A) em estudantes universitários da cidade de Mar del Plata, Argentina. As expectativas para os efeitos do álcool referem-se às crenças que as pessoas têm sobre os efeitos que produz o consumo de álcool no comportamento, e têm sido relacionadas com o início, a manutenção e os padrões de consumo. Embora tenham sido desenvolvidos vários instrumentos para sua medida, o AEQ-A tem sido um dos mais utilizados; no entanto devido à variabilidade cultural das expectativas, é recomendável realizar adaptações deste aos contextos particulares em estudo. Para este trabalho, utilizou-se uma versão do AEQ-A previamente validada em Mar del Plata, Argentina, que consta de 40 itens medidos numa escala dicotômica (verdadeiro/falso). A amostra esteve composta por 1076 estudantes de Psicologia da Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata. Realizaram-se análises fatoriais exploratórias e confirmatórias, nas quais se encontrou uma estrutura de seis fatores que reuniram 37 itens. A consistência interna de cada subescala foi adequada e a validade concorrente foi satisfatóriajá que as pontuações nas subescalas de crenças sobre os efeitos positivos do consumo em situações sociais relacionaram-se com o consumo excessivo episódico. Concluiu-se que contar com instrumentos de avaliação das expectativas permitirá estudar os fatores psicossociais associados ao consumo e dar informação útil para a elaboração de intervenções.

Resumen El objetivo del presente trabajo fue analizar las propiedades psicométricas (estructura factorial, consistencia interna y validez concurrente) de una versión adaptada del Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire Adolescents (AEQ-A) en estudiantes universitarios de la ciudad de Mar del Plata, Argentina. Las expectativas hacia los efectos del alcohol se refieren a las creencias que las personas tienen sobre los efectos que produce el consumo de alcohol en el comportamiento, y han sido relacionadas con el inicio, el mantenimiento y los patrones de consumo. Si bien se han desarrollado varios instrumentos para su medición, el AEQ-A ha sido uno de los más utilizados; sin embargo debido a la variabilidad cultural de las expectativas, es recomendable realizar adaptaciones del mismo a los contextos particulares en estudio. Para este trabajo se utilizó una versión del AEQ-A previamente validada en Mar del Plata, Argentina, que consta de 40 ítems medidos en una escala dicotómica (verdadero/falso). La muestra estuvo compuesta por 1076 estudiantes de Psicología de la Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata. Se realizaron análisis factoriales exploratorios y confirmatorios, en los cuales se encontró una estructura de seis factores que reunieron 37 ítems. La consistencia interna de cada subescala fue adecuada y la validez concurrente fue satisfactoria ya que los puntajes en las subescalas de creencias sobre los efectos positivos del consumo en situaciones sociales se relacionaron con el consumo excesivo episódico. Se concluyó que contar con instrumentos de evaluación de las expectativas permitirá estudiar los factores psicosociales asociados al consumo y brindar información útil para el diseño de intervenciones.

Reduced Nicotine Content Expectancies Affect Initial Responses to Smoking.

OBJECTIVES: We sought to determine if negative responses to reduced nicotine content (RNC) cigarettes during open-label trials result from smokers' (negative) expectancies. We examined the effects of nicotine content description - independent of actual nicotine content - on subjective responses (craving reduction, withdrawal suppression, mood changes, and sensory ratings) and smoking behaviors (topography measures and carbon monoxide [CO] boost). METHODS: Thirty-six 12-hour-abstinent daily smokers completed a 3-session crossover trial. During each session, participants smoked their preferred brand cigarette - blinded and described as containing "usual," "low," and "very low" nicotine content - through a topography device and completed CO and subjective response assessments. RESULTS: Although nicotine content was identical, compared to the "usual" content cigarette, participants experienced less craving reduction after smoking the "very low" nicotine cigarette, and rated its smoke as weaker (p < .05). Participants took shallower puffs of the "low" nicotine cigarette (p < .05), and rated the "low" and "very low" nicotine cigarettes as weaker and too mild (p < .01). CONCLUSIONS: Negative responses to RNC cigarettes may be due, in part, to negative expectancies about using cigarettes containing less nicotine. In this context, RNC cigarette marketing and labeling are likely important considerations if a federal nicotine reduction policy is initiated.

Modelo de predisposición adquirida para el uso de alcohol en adolescentes argentinos / The acquired preparedness model for alcohol use in Argentinian adolescents

Se analizó, en una muestra de adolescentes argentinos, el modelo de predisposición adquirida. El modelo propone que el rasgo desinhibición influye de manera indirecta, a través de variables cognitivas, sobre el consumo de alcohol. La exposición a modelos de consumo del grupo de pares influye directa e indirectamente (mediante las expectativas hacia el alcohol) sobre el uso de alcohol. Participaron 343 adolescentes asistentes a colegios públicos de educación media de la ciudad de Córdoba (Argentina). Se midió impulsividad, expectativas hacia el alcohol, motivos de consumo de alcohol, normas sociales de consumo y consumo de alcohol de los adolescentes. Para determinar el efecto de las variables señaladas como antecedentes del consumo se aplicó un análisis de senderos. Se propusieron dos modelos teóricos que diferían en la inclusión, o no, de las normas sociales del consumo de alcohol. Los resultados apoyan el modelo de predisposición adquirida e indican que el efecto de impulsividad sobre el consumo de alcohol es indirecto mediado por las expectativas hacia el alcohol. Aunque ambos modelos presentan adecuado ajuste a los datos, el modelo que incorpora el efecto de las normas sociales de consumo presenta un ajuste excelente. Los resultados de este trabajo, el primero de nuestro medio en evaluar el modelo de predisposición adquirida sobre el consumo de alcohol, destacan la utilidad de diagramar esfuerzos preventivos focalizados en el control de los impulsos, en las expectativas positivas hacia el alcohol y en la reducción de la percepción del consumo de los pares.

The acquired preparedness model was examined in a sample of Argentinian adolescents. This model suggests that disinhibition has an indirect effect, through cognitive variables, on alcohol consumption. Asample of 343 adolescents from the city of Cordoba (Argentina) from public secondary education schools took part in the study. Standardised measurements were used to assess impulsivity, alcohol expectancies, social norms of alcohol drinking, and drinking patterns. A path analysis was conducted to determine the effect of these variables on quantity of alcohol consumption. Two theoretical models, that differed in the inclusion - or not - of social norms of alcohol drinking, were evaluated. The results, according to the acquired preparedness model, indicate that impulsivity influences alcohol consumption through alcohol expectancies. The model that incorporates the effect of social norms of alcohol drinking showed an excellent fit to the data. This study - the first in Argentina that evaluates this model - emphasises the usefulness of addressing impulse control and alcohol expectancies when developing interventions aimed at reducing alcohol consumption.

Health Action Process Approach (HAPA) as a Theoretical Framework to Understand Behavior Change

A theoretical framework to explain, predict, and modify health behaviors is presented which consists of various psychological constructs and a mediator mechanism. Risk perception, outcome expectancies, self-efficacy, intention, planning, and action control constitute the building blocks for a mediator model that is based on two processes: goal setting and goal pursuit. When it comes to the development of interventions to modify behaviors, one can target either the initial motivation phase or the subsequent volition phase. This is an open architecture framework allowing for various research designs and subsets of constructs. Hundreds of studies have been conducted based on this model. Three correlational and two intervention studies were chosen to illustrate the diversity of approaches targeting physical activity in Germany and Costa Rica, dental cleaning in India and Poland, and dust mask wearing in China. They differ in terms of the predictors that emerged as most relevant for behavior change.

Se presenta un marco de referencia para explicar, predecir, y modificar conductas de salud el cual consiste en varios constructos psicológicos y un mecanismo de mediación. La percepción de riesgo, las expectativas de resultado, la autoeficacia, la intención, y el control de acción constituyen los bloques de construcción para un modelo de mediación que está basado en dos procesos: el establecimiento de metas y la consecución de metas. Cuando se trata del desarrollo de intervenciones para modificar conductas, uno puede apuntar hacia la fase inicial de motivación, o bien, hacia la fase volitiva subsecuente. Este es un marco de referencia abierto, que permite varios diseños de investigación y un subconjunto de constructos. Se han realizado cientos de estudios basados en este modelo, de los cuales se escoge, como ilustración, tres estudios correlacionales y dos estudios de intervención, que abordan actividad física en Alemania y Costa Rica, higiene dental en India y Polonia, y uso de mascarillas contra el polvo en China. Estos difieren en términos de predictores que emergen como predictores más relevantes para el cambio de conductas.

Comparación de Tres Modelos de Riesgo de Uso Nocivo de Alcohol en Estudiantes Mexicanos / Comparison of Three Risk Models of Harmful Use of Alcohol in Mexican Students

Resumen: El presente estudio se planteó como objetivo identificar correlatos psicosociales del consumo nocivo de alcohol en estudiantes mexicanos, así como probar comparativamente la validez y capacidad explicativa de tres modelos teóricos y de medición de estos factores, a fin de apoyar la investigación del problema y dar pauta al desarrollo de acciones preventivas teórica y empíricamente sustentadas. Estos tres modelos son: la teoría de las expectativas, la teoría del aprendizaje social de R. Akers y la teoría de la conducta planificada. Los hallazgos indican que los tres modelos tienen una buena capacidad predictiva del consumo nocivo de alcohol en la población de estudio. El mayor peso corresponde a las expectativas positivas asociadas a los efectos del alcohol, seguidas por el uso de alcohol entre pares, una baja percepción de riesgo y, como factor protector, la capacidad percibida para controlar la cantidad que se bebe. Los hallazgos reflejan la conveniencia de aplicar un modelo multivariado compuesto por variables provenientes de los tres modelos.

Abstract: The aim of this study was to identify psychosocial correlates of harmful alcohol use among young Mexican students, and to comparatively prove the predictive validity of three theoretical models, each one capable to support the research of the problem and to guide the design of theoretically and empirically grounded preventive and treatment programs: a) the alcohol expectancies theory, b) the social learning theory by R. Akers, and c) the planned behavior theory. Findings indícate that these three models are appropriate predictive models for harmful alcohol use in the studied group. The highest predictive weight belongs to positive expectancies associated to the effects of alcohol, followed by alcohol use among friends, low risk perception, and self-control of alcohol drinking as a protective factor. Findings suggest the convenience of the application of a composed multi-varied algorithm, integrated by factors and variables extracted from the three models.

Consumo de alcohol y factores intervinientes en estudiantes universitarios / Alcohol consumption and intervening factors observed in university students

Objetivo: dar cuenta de algunos elementos intervinientes en la conducta de beber, consumo de riesgo y la dependencia del alcohol, en un grupo poblacional de la ciudad de Medellín, Colombia. Métodos: estudio multimétodo de corte transversal en 538 estudiantes universitarios. Se aplicaron varios instrumentos previamente validados por expertos, entre ellos, el test de identificación de los trastornos debidos al consumo de alcohol, el cuestionario acerca de las expectativas hacia el alcohol y el cuestionario de creencias acerca del consumo de alcohol. Los datos se recopilaron entre marzo y junio de 2010. Para el análisis de correlaciones entre variables cualitativas se utilizó la prueba ji-cuadrada de independencia, la prueba exacta de Fisher y la prueba Z, para comparar las proporciones. En todos las ocasiones se trabajó con p £ 0,05. Resultados: del total de estudiantes entrevistados el 82,3 % había consumido alcohol en algún momento de su vida, el 66,0 %, no tenían problemas con el consumo de esta sustancia, 21,6 % tenían consumo perjudicial y el 12,5 % presentaban ya dependencia, según el test de identificación de los trastornos debidos al consumo de alcohol. Conclusiones: las expectativas, creencias, la publicidad, las costumbres familiares y sociales, tienen una relación favorable para el consumo de alcohol en estudiantes universitarios en Medellín, Colombia.

Objective: to present some intervening factors in drinking behavior, risky consumption and alcohol-dependence found in a population group of Medellin city in Colombia. Methods: cross-sectional multi-method study of 538 university students. Several expert-validated instruments were applied and through Rash's method, such as a test to identify alcohol consumption-related disorders, an alcohol expectancy questionnaire, expectancies, a questionnaire of beliefs on alcohol consumption and a questionnaire on rites, social and family traditions. Data were collected from March to June 2010. For the correlation analysis among the qualitative variables, Chi-square test of independence, Fisher's exact test and Z test were used to compare proportions. The value used was p £ 0.05. Results: out of the total number of students who were interviewed, 82.3 % had taken alcohol at some time of their lifetime, 66 % had no problems with alcohol consumption, 21.6 % showed harmful consumption and 12.5 were already alcohol-dependent, according to the test of identification of alcohol consumption-related disorders. Conclusions: expectancies, beliefs, advertising, family and social customs have favorable association with the alcohol consumption in university students in Medellin, Colombia.

Is Health Related Quality of Life (HRQoL) a valid indicator for health systems evaluation?

The purpose of this review is to do a discussion about the use of the HRQoL as a health measure of the populations that enable to analyze its potential use as a measure of development and efficiency of health systems. The principal use of the HRQoL is in health technologies economics evaluation; however this measure can be use in public health when need to know the health state of population. The WHO recognizes its potential use but its necessary to do a discussion about your difficulties for its application and restrictions for its use as a performance indicator for the health systems. The review show the different aspects about the use of HRQoL how a measure of efficiency ot the health system, each aspect identified in the literature is analyzed and discussed, developing the pros and cons of their possible use, especially when it comes as a cardinal measure. The analysis allows recognize that measuring HRQoL in countries could serve as a useful indicator, especially when it seeks to measure the level of health and disease, as do most of the indicators of current use. However, the methodological constraints that do not allow comparability between countries especially when you have large socioeconomic differences have yet to be resolved to allow comparison between different regions.

Patterns of substance use among Argentinean adolescents and analysis of the effect of age at first alcohol use on substance use behaviors.

OBJECTIVE: The present study used an empirically based method to characterize substance use in a sample of Argentinean adolescents and analyzed the association between age at drinking onset and substance use behaviors. Differences in alcohol expectancies and personality traits as a function of different patterns of substance use were also explored. METHOD: Data were obtained from 583 adolescents aged 13-18years (M=15.01years; SD=1.5years; 59.5% female) from the city of Cordoba, Argentina. Alcohol, tobacco, and drug use and age at first alcohol use were measured. Personality traits, including extroversion, conscientiousness, impulsivity, and aggression, and positive and negative alcohol expectancies were assessed. Latent Class Analysis was applied to examine the structure of five co-occurring substance use behaviors: frequency of alcohol use, quantity of alcohol use, prevalence of drunkenness episodes, tobacco use, and drug use. RESULTS: Latent Class Analysis revealed five distinct patterns of substance use. The classes differed in substance use behaviors, personality traits, and alcohol expectancies. Adolescents with early drinking onset were more likely to show heavier alcohol use, more drunkenness episodes, and more drug use than adolescents with late drinking onset. CONCLUSIONS: Latent Class Analysis allowed the detection of groups of adolescents with distinct patterns of substance use. These groups exhibited significantly different personality and alcohol expectancy profiles, likely representing subgroups who are at greater risk for developing alcohol-related problems.

Inventário de expectativas de resultados em usuários de crack (IERUC): construção e validação / The crack expectancy questionnaire (CEQ): construction and validation

Objetivos: Desenvolver e validar uma escala que avalie as expectativas de resultados em usuários de crack internados. Método: Estudo transversal, com amostra por conveniência. Inicialmente os itens do IERUC surgiram de frases de usuários divulgadas pela mídia e das falas de usuários de crack internados. Apareceram 41 frases, foram selecionadas 25 e submetidas a um grupo focal de 15 usuários de crack, os quais apontaram 18 frases. Um grupo de sete juízes especialistas em dependência química avaliou os 18 itens e aprovou 17, em cinco fatores teóricos. Resultados: Na validação semântica e psicométrica, o IERUC com 17 itens e cinco fatores foi aplicado em 170 homens internados, usuários de crack e após a análise fatorial a escala resultou 14 itens, distribuídos em quatro fatores, versão final apresentada neste estudo. Conclusões: Os resultados satisfatórios de validade e confiabilidade do IERUC definiram boas propriedades psicométricas, com base em um modelo de quatro fatores que avaliam as expectativas de resultados relacionadas ao uso de crack.

Aims: To develop and validate a scale to assess crack-related expectancies in hospitalized crack users. Method: This is a cross-sectional study with a convenience sample. The Crack Expectancy Questionnaire (CEQ) items were initially developed from statements of crack users presented in the media and reports of hospitalized crack users. Of 41 statements collected, 25 were selected and subjected to a focus group of 15 crack users, who indicated 18 statements. A panel of seven drug dependence specialists evaluated the 18 items and approved 17 of them, divided into five theoretical factors. Results: For psychometric and semantic validation, the 17-item, five-factor CEQ was administered to 170 hospitalized male crack users. After factor analysis, the scale resulted in 14 items divided into four factors, with the final version presented in this study. Conclusions: Satisfactory results of CEQ validity and reliability defined good psychometric properties, based on a four-factor model to assess crack-related expectancies.

Diferenças de gênero sobre expectativas do uso de álcool / Gender differences in alcohol expectancies

CONTEXTO: Estudos indicam que expectativas sobre o uso de álcool podem contribuir para o início e a manutenção do consumo da droga e modular de forma diferente o comportamento do beber de homens e de mulheres. OBJETIVOS: Descrever e analisar diferenças de gênero sobre expectativas relacionadas ao uso de álcool em artigos da literatura indexada. MÉTODOS: Foram pesquisados artigos empíricos originais no período de 2000 a 2011 nos indexadores PubMed, SciELO, Lilacs e PsycInfo. RESULTADOS: Foram selecionados 32 estudos, sendo apenas dois de origem latino-americana. Expectativa de facilitação social foi a mais observada para ambos os gêneros. Homens apresentaram maior diversidade de expectativas sobre os efeitos do uso de álcool. Intervenções baseadas na redução de expectativas positivas parecem mais eficazes entre os homens. CONCLUSÃO: Expectativas são um importante fator de risco para o uso de álcool, independentemente do gênero. A consideração das diferenças de gênero sobre expectativas pode beneficiar o manejo clínico de problemas associados ao consumo de álcool e direcionar ações preventivas para o risco de abuso e dependência.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have shown, that expectancies about the consumption of alcohol can contribute to the onset and maintenance of alcohol use and modulate in different ways the drinking behaviour of men and women. OBJECTIVES: To describe and analyse gender differences in alcohol expectancies based on indexed literature. METHODS: The research was conducted via the electronic databases PubMed, SciELO, Lilacs and PsycInfo, considering original articles published between 2000 and 2011. RESULTS: Thirty two studies were found, whereby only 2 were from Latin America. Social facilitation was the most frequent expectancy in both genders. Men showed more variety of expectancies associated to alcohol use. Preventive measures with the aim to reduce positive expectancies were more effective in male. DISCUSSION: Regardless of gender, alcohol expectancies are an important risk factor for alcohol use. The consideration of gender differences in alcohol expectancies can enhance clinical monitoring of problems associated with alcohol use and direct preventive efforts against the risk of abuse and dependence.

Consumo de sustancias psicoactivas y expectativas hacia el alcohol en niños escolarizados entre 8 y 12 años / Consumption of psychoactive substances and expectancies towards alcohol in school children between 8 and 12 years old

Se presenta un proyecto de investigación UBACYT en curso (programación 2010/12) cuyo propósito es indagar la existencia del consumo de sustancias psicoactivas e identificar y analizar actitudes, valores y creencias hacia el uso y abuso de dichas sustancias en niños y niñas escolarizados entre 8 y 12 años de edad. Asimismo, se propone identificar y analizar las expectativas de los niños, específicamente hacia el alcohol. Se comparan una población clínica y una población no clínica de niños. Se propone continuar y profundizar indagaciones anteriores, incluyendo a niños de edades menores a las estudiadas tradicionalmente. La muestra de población clínica está conformada por los niños que reciben psicoterapia en una unidad de docencia en servicio de la Facultad de Psicología de la U.B.A. La muestra de población no-clínica está conformada por niños que concurren a diversas instituciones educativas. Se administran el CORIN, el CEA-N y un protocolo de datos sociodemográficos.

The purpose of this proyect is to inquire into the existence of psychoactive substances consumption and to identify and analyse attitudes, values and believes regarding use and abuse of such substances in school children between 8 and 12 years old. Furthermore, identify and analyse children's expectancies, especially towards alcohol. Regarding the objective of this study, a comparison between a clinical and a non clinical sample of children will be done. The purpose is to continue and go deeply into previous investigations on this problem expanding the age range of the sample including younger children than the ones traditionally studied. The clinical sample will be composed of children who recieve psychotherapy in a Child Clinical Psychology Unit that depends on Facultad de Psicología, UBA. The non clinical sample will be composed of non consultant children that attend to different educational institutions. The CORIN, the CEA-N and sociodemographic data protocol will be administrated.

Validación de una nueva Escala de Expectativas de Resultados y Metas de Rendimiento para Matemática / Validity evidence for the new scales for mathematics outcome expectancies and performance goals

Con el objetivo de poder evaluar los postulados de un modelo de rendimiento académico en Matemática basado en la Teoría Social Cognitiva del Desarrollo de Carrera (SCCT - Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1994), se adaptaron las subescalas de Expectativas de resultados en Matemática y Metas en Matemática de la Escala de Autoeficacia para Enseñanza Media (Fouad, Smith & Enochs, 1997). En esta adaptación (Cupani & Gnavi, 2007)se observó que la Subescala Metas en Matemática presentó una estructura factorial simple y una adecuada confiabilidad, aunque no evidenció poder predictivo del rendimiento académico. Por otro lado, la Subescala Expectativas de Resultados presentó valores bajos de consistencia interna y se observó que el contenido de algunos de sus ítemes parece no ser aceptable para nuestro medio cultural. Por lo tanto, para mejorar ambas escalas se realizaron nuevos estudios. En una primera fase, se efectuaron dos grupos de enfoque con el propósito de generar nuevos ítemes sobre las Expectativas de resultados y Metas de rendimiento de los estudiantes de nuestro medio cultural. De este estudio se obtuvo una nueva versión de las escalas Expectativas de Resultados y Metas de Rendimiento compuestas por 13 y 11 ítemes, respectivamente. En una segunda fase se administraron estos nuevos ítemes a una muestra de 420 adolescentes con un rango de edad de 13 a 16 años (M = 13.84, DT = .76). Se realizaron estudios de análisis factorial (exploratorio y confirmatorio) y de confiabilidad mediante y de validez test-criterio. Los resultados demostraron que ambas escalas poseen adecuadas propiedades psicométricas.

Lent and Brown (2006) suggest guidelines for creating and adapting assessment tools based on the Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT -Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994). In the last years, this theory has been the subject of substantial research, both basic and theoretical. The authors indicate that any assessment of SCCT should: (a) contextualize measures to make sure they are grounded in a particular, domain-specific context, (b) be reasonably comprehensive in sampling the domain, designing multifaceted measures when the criterion is correspondingly complex, and (c) ensure compatibility between predictors and criteria along key dimensions, including content, context, temporal orientation, and level of specificity. Additionally, it is important to use reliable and valid tests. Without sound measures, it is difficult, if not impossible, to establish whether theory-discrepant findings are attributable to problems with the theory, flaws in operationalizing it, or both. In Argentina, Cupani and Gnavi (2007) assessed a model of academic performance in Mathematic, based on the SCCT. Cupani and Gnavi adapted the subscales for Mathematic Outcome Expectancies and Performance Goals of the Middle School Self-Efficacy Scale (Fouad, Smith, & Enochs, 1997). Results indicated that the goals subscale has a simple factor structure with adequate internal consistence, although it did not predict academic performance in Mathematic. Moreover, the Subscale for Mathematics Outcome Expectancies showed low internal consistence and some of its items did not transfer well to our cultural setting. Therefore, two follow-up studies were carried out to improve the psychometric properties of both scales. The first study employed two focus groups (n per group = 8) and aimed at generating ideas on the student's expectations of results and goals on academic achievement in our cultural setting. The information gathered was used to write 7 new items for the goals subscale and 12 items for the outcome expectancies. These items were then tested for clarity and understanding in a sample of adolescents. Language corrections were also carried out, yielding two new goals and outcome expectancies scales (11 and 13 items, respectively). On the second study, these scales were administered to a sample of 420 adolescents (M = 13.84; SD = .76). The internal structure of the scales was examined through exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis and their internal consistency was analyzed by Cronbach's alpha. The predictive validity for Academic Achievement in Mathematic was also analyzed. The scale of logical-mathematical self- efficacy from the (revised) Self-efficacy Inventory of Multiple Intelligences (Pérez & Cupani, 2008) was also administered. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis revealed that a single-factor structure for the scale of performance goals (GFI: .92; CFI: .95, RMSEA: .08) and for the Scale for Mathematic Outcome Expectancies (GFI: .95; CFI: .96, RMSEA: .06) is the most appropriate model for the data gathered. Both scales had optimal Cronbach's alpha values (.86 and. 85, for performance goals and outcome expectancies, respectively). The study on predictive validity also showed that logic-mathematic self- efficacy beliefs and achievement goals in Mathematic explain 32% of variance of math school performance. The results show that Academic Achievement in Mathematic is partially explained by the model. In summary, both scales allow a contextualized measurement of outcome expectancies and performance goals on Mathematic in teenagers from our cultural area. These scales have satisfactory psychometric properties, presenting a clear internal structure, and adequate internal consistence. Future application of path analysis will allow a more precise identification of the interrelations between outcome expectancies and performance goals on Mathematic and their direct and indirect effects upon academic achievement in it.

Percepção de alunos sobre as expectativas do professor acerca do seu desempenho: um estudo comparativo entre alunos com e sem dificuldades de aprendizagem / Students' perception about their teachers' expectancies towards their performance: a comparative study among students with and without learning difficulties

A presente pesquisa teve como objetivo investigar se crianças com diferentes níveis de dificuldades de aprendizagem em escrita se diferem no que se refere à percepção de expectativas de seus professores a respeito delas. Participaram do estudo 138 crianças entre 9 e 10 anos de idade de duas escolas públicas. As dificuldades de aprendizagem em escrita foram avaliadas mediante uma escala padronizada, que detecta as dificuldades lingüísticas mais comuns na escrita de crianças das séries iniciais do ensino fundamental. A percepção dos participantes sobre as expectativas de seus professores a seu respeito foi obtida por meio de uma escala contendo vinte afirmações, onze positivas, que indicam boa percepção do aluno, e nove que indicam uma percepção negativa. Os resultados confirmaram a existência de diferenças entre a percepção de alunos sobre as expectativas a respeito deles, nos diferentes grupos de dificuldades de aprendizagem em escrita. As médias de percepção foram menores para os níveis mais altos de dificuldades e maiores para os grupos queapresentaram menos dificuldades de aprendizagem na escrita, indicando que quanto maior o nível de dificuldade de aprendizagem dos participantes, menos positiva se mostrou a percepção que têm sobre as expectativas dos professores a seu respeito.

This research aimed to investigate if children with different levels of difficulty in learning to writediffer concerning the perception of their teacher's expectancies towards them. Participants were 138children aged between 9 and 10 years from two public schools. A standardized scale was used toevaluate the difficulties in learning to write. This scale evaluates the most common linguisticdifficulties in children's writing during the first years of education. Participants' perception about their teacher's expectancies towards them was measured through a scale having twenty statements of which eleven were positively and nine negatively stated. Results pointed differences between the students' perception about the expectations towards them, on different groups of difficulty in learning to write. The average perception was lower for the levels of higher difficulty and higher for the groups withless difficulty in learning to write, indicating that the higher the individuals' difficulty learning levelwas, the less positive was the perception they had about the teachers' expectancies towards them.

Expectativas relacionadas con el alcohol en la predicción del abuso en el consumo en jóvenes

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Abstract: In México, addictions among the middle- and high-school student population have been widely studied, which has shed light on certain risks associated with alcohol abuse, including a higher probability of expriencing with other drugs -particularly in the case of males-, engaging in risky sexual practices and attempting suicide, a situation that is twice as common among those who drink and drive. Nevertheless, research on alcohol abuse among the university population has been less explored, particularly as regards the identification of the variables that predict excessive alcohol consumption. A review of the international literature on factors associated with alcohol abuse in this type of population indicates that it is among university students that high or explosive consumption tends to be largest, even among young people who do not attend school, and that the period of higher consumption is between 17 and 21 years of age. Other factors that have been identified include exposure to negative life events, inappropriate coping styles, personality variables, resorting to alcohol to reduce tension, and environmental and socio-cognitive variables, foremost among which are expectations of the positive effects of alcohol. These expectations not only predict alcohol consumption but also differentiate between problem and non-problem drinking. For example, while social drinkers tend to harbor more social expectations when drinking alcohol, excessive drinkers expect alcohol to increase their aggressive and social behavior, while reducing stress or tension. This paper seeks to evaluate the impact of expectations regarding alcohol, in predicting alcohol abuse among students at public and private universities in Mexico City. Indicators of alcohol abuse include consumption of five or more drinks on each occasion, drunkenness during the past month and year as well as associated problems. The study also seeks to determine the way in which sub-scales of expectations interact with each other. An ex post facto transversal study was carried out on a sample of 678 university male and female students aged 17 to 25, with an average age of 20 (s.d. = 1.80). Participants were asked to complete a self-report which included the following areas: a) Sociodemographic data, b) Questionnaire on Expectations regarding Alcohol (AEQ), in a version adapted to this population and c) Alcohol consumption habits over the past month and year. As regards drinking habits, a comparative analysis was carried out by sex and age. Consumption of 5 or more drinks per occasions tends to be more common among men, while the consumption of 5 drinks or less is more frequent in women. At the same time, a higher proportion of heavy drinkers was concentrated in the 20 to 22 age range. Consumers of over 5 glasses of alcohol began drinking at an average age of 14 (s.d. = 2.55) whereas consumers of fewer than 5 drinks began drinking at the age of 15 (t= 4.79 , p < .001). In both cases, the means obtained from the indicators of abuse were highest among consumers of five or more drinks. Males take more drinks than women when they get drunk, consuming an average of 9 glasses (s.d. = 4.7) whereas women get drunk after an average of 5 glasses (s.d. = 3.2) (t= -10.80, p < .001). Out of a total of 26% of young people who mentioned having problems associated with their drinking, most were men (17.9%) as opposed to women (8.2%). The multiple regression analysis carried out to determine the impact of the sub-scales of AEQ expectations on alcohol abuse found that expectations regarding alcohol as a "facilitator of group interaction" and the sub-scale of "reduction of psychological tension" were the main predictors of abuse. This model explained 20% of the variance (F=19.35, p < .001). A logistic regression analysis found that the sub-scale of expectations regarding "increase of power and aggression" as well as alcohol abuse predicted problems associated with drinking. A model was subsequently designed to integrate the expectations that predicted alcohol abu se and associated problems. A structural equations model was used which found that expectations regarding "reduction of psychological tension" and alcohol as a jacilitator of group interaction predicted 30% and 24% of abuse, respectively (X2sb = 33.52, p >0.00, CFI = 0.99 and RMSEA = 0.01). The rest of the sub-scales concerning expectations were regarded as mediating varia bles to see how they interacted with each other. As one can see, although the sub-scales of expectations are inter-related, group expectations were specifically associated with the sub-scales of "increase in sexuality," "physical tension" and "increase in power and aggression." At the same time, expectations regarding "reduction of psychological tension" are closely linked to the social sphere, specifically the expectations regarding "verbal expressiveness" and "lack of inhibition." Along these same lines, alcohol abuse and the expectations regarding alcohol as an agent that increases feelings of power and aggression predicted 26% and 28% of alcohol-related problems. One of the contributions of this research is that it considered the inter-relationship of sub-scales of expectations to explain alcohol abuse. Psychological tension, for example, appears to be linked to social aspects, specifically to verbal expressiveness and lack of inhibition, while group expectations refer to sexuality, the reduction of psychological tension and the increase of aggressiveness and feelings of power. Likewise, it is interesting to note that in addition to alcohol abuse, expectations regarding an increase in power and feelings of aggression are the best predictors of problems associated with alcohol use. The results have implications at the intervention level for developing programs specifically aimed at this population. The fact that expectations regarding alcohol as a "facilitator of social interaction" is one of the main predictors of abuse indicates the importance of considering environmental factors in the development of prevention programs. This involves including not only young people but also parents, schools, and other adults in order to question the cultural norms that promote beliefs regarding alcohol consumption, as a way of enjoying social interaction with positive, pleasurable states, and as a socially appropriate response for coping with negative events that arise in everyday life, such as drinking to relieve tension, handle crises and as an escape from chronic stress, by providing information on the negative consequences of use and promoting healthier lifestyles. At the intervention level, it is essential to target university students through programs specially designed for young people who engage in high-risk drinking. As regards expectations, actions must be carried out to resignify the positive beliefs surrounding alcohol, by providing information on the high health costs of heavy drinking and offering alternative resources oriented towards other means of responding to stress that do not involve excessive alcohol consumption.