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1.
Rev Esc Enferm USP ; 26(2): 155-60, 1992 Aug.
Article in Portuguese | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-1295016

ABSTRACT

The author presents some of the historical determinations of the policies of human reproduction in Brazil, placing them among other social policies. She argues that reproductive profile of the social classes depends upon not only the biological reproduction, but also upon the work power.


PIP: When examining the issue of human reproduction in Brazil and its historical determinants it must be stated that even primitive societies were regulating fertility, but planning of human reproduction as a movement started around 1922 in the United States through the militancy of Margaret Sanger. This was a time of radical ideological transformation as a result of industrialization and urbanization in North America, which changed the role of women and that of the family. In Brazil the discussion of fertility regulation started in the early 1960s, when the Kennedy administration conditioned its economic assistance to Latin America on the adoption of population control programs, which was not well-received in these Catholic countries. The neo-Malthusian population concept originated in the international agencies, who saw fertility control as a solution to global economic problems. It also found acceptance among elite conservatives in Brazil because of the fear that the growth of poor people could subvert the prevailing social order. Since national interest arguments did not work in Brazil, the programs invoked arguments such as how high parity and high-risk pregnancies would affect the health of the mother; the disproportion between the number of children and family income of the poor; and the control of induced abortion. The economic development in Brazil in the 1950s was the basis of accepting neo-Malthusian reasoning. The debate about these programs involved the whole society. The Catholic Church, however, was the major opponent of a government-supported fertility control program. The capitalist state has assigned to women the role of reproducer and primary socializer of children, regarding motherhood as their principal role, and the control of access to contraceptives meant the continued subordinated of women in capitalist and patriarchal societies.


Subject(s)
Public Policy , Reproduction , Brazil , Family Planning Services , Humans , Social Environment
2.
Profamilia ; : 51-4, 1988.
Article in Spanish | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-12284489

ABSTRACT

PIP: Family planning, today a basis of the wellbeing of families and societies, developed slowly over the centuries until roughly the 1950s, when researchers in various parts of the world began to apply their knowledge of reproductive physiology to development of new contraceptive methods that would be as safe and effective as possible. The oral contraceptive, IUD, and tubal sterilization were developed or improved beginning in the 1950s and subsequently came into widespread use around the world. Among reversible contraceptive methods available at present are the barrier methods including the condom, diaphragm, cervical cap, various spermicidal tablets, creams, and jellies, and vaginal rings containing progestin. A variety of formulations of OCs containing estrogens and/or progestins are available. Some injectable formulations contain a mixture of ethinyl estradiol and progestin and provide contraceptive protection for 30 days. Others contain progestins only and are effective for 84 days after administration. Subdermal contraceptive implants containing levonorgestrel in 6 silastic capsules provide up to 5 1/2 years of contraceptive protection. The most common side effects, experienced by about 30% of users, are menstrual disturbances that occasionally require removal of the implants. 3 types of vaginal rings containing levonorgestrel, a combination of estrogen and progestin, or natural progesterone only have failure rates estimated at 4 per 100 woman-years. They are usually left in place for 3 weeks at a time followed by a 1 week interruption. Adhesive patches containing estrogen and progestin are designed to be applied weekly to the thorax for 3 weeks followed by a 1 week discontinuation. The method is expected to be on the market shortly. IUDs in some form have been in use since 1929, but their use increased with development of flexible plastic materials and at present a variety of forms are available, including copper devices. Couples who have achieved their desired family size may choose to employ a permanent method. Minilaparotomy consists of the opening of the abdominal wall through a small incision and ligation of the tubes. Laparotomy, the most comfortable, economical, and effective method of female sterilization, is used only in well-equipped hospitals because of the expensive equipment and skilled manpower required. Minilaparotomy and laparoscopic sterilization are conducted under local or general anesthesia as needed by each patient. Vasectomy, ligation of the deferent canals, prevents the sperm from being ejaculated. It does not require general anesthesia and is much simpler than any method of female sterilization.^ieng


Subject(s)
Condoms , Contraception , Contraceptives, Oral , Family Planning Services , Injections , Intrauterine Devices , Sterilization, Reproductive , Vasectomy
3.
Bol Asoc Chil Prot Fam ; 22(7-12): 26-46, 1986.
Article in Spanish | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-12315313

ABSTRACT

PIP: The Chilean Association for the protection of the Family was founded 21 years ago in response to serious problems in maternal and child health. A brief history of birth control programs in Chile shows that initial strong government support has been tempered since 1979 by concern over the sharp drop in the birth rate. The number of abortions in Chile has decreased from 28.7/1000 women of reproductive age in 1964 to 11.3/1000 in 1984. Maternal mortality has decreased from 28.6/10000 live births to 3.6/10000 in the same time. Thus these 2 objectives have been very successful. The sharpest decline in the birth rate has been among women over 35 years old, and women of low educational level, indicating perhaps that a greater proportion of children are being born to women most suited to have them. There has been a decrease in the proportion of high risk pregnancies. A high correlation has been found between economic indicators and fecundity, indicating that reproductive behavior is strongly influenced by economic contingencies. Maternal and infant mortality are multifactorial and many different approaches are needed to reduce them. Nevertheless, in the past 20 years, chile has been able to make significant advances in these areas.^ieng


Subject(s)
Abortion, Induced , Birth Rate , Family Planning Services , Infant Mortality , Maternal Mortality , Population Characteristics , Americas , Chile , Demography , Developed Countries , Developing Countries , Fertility , Latin America , Mortality , Population , Population Dynamics , Research , South America
4.
Int J Nurs Stud ; 18(2): 81-8, 1981.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-6912196

ABSTRACT

PIP: This paper reports on the development of birth planning in Cuba and strategies that are relevant to nurses in the communities of Cuba. Cuba reduced its crude birth rate by 40% from 1964-75 without formal family planning programs and resources. By 1975, Cuba had achieved the lowest birth rate in Latin America (21/1000) except Barbados (19/1000). By 1978, Cuba's crude birth rate declined to a low of 15.3/1000. The demographic transition in Cuba has been a process of equalization by: 1) community participation to ensure basic human rights for everyone, 2) increasing the status of women while providing child care centers, 3) providing equal availability of health care services including contraceptive services, sterilization, and abortion, and 4) focusing on individual birth choice, not on limiting population growth. Emphasis in Cuba for reducing fertility has been put on literacy, education, and infant mortality. The illiteracy rate in 1961 decreased from 20% to 4%. Infant mortality decreased from 38.8/1000 live births in 1970 to 22.3/1000 in 1978. 1/3 of Cuban women were participating fully in the labor force in 1978. Polyclinics have been established as preventive care medical centers throughout Cuba and health care is free. Family planning options are integrated into routine primary health care at polyclinics and assure equal access to the total Cuban population. Abortion is freely available and increased to 61/1000 in 1976. The implications for nursing are that: 1) the traditional work of nurses places them in a key position to help extend basic human rights beyond current levels, 2) nurses can initiate discussions of birth planning with women and men in a variety of settings, and 3) nurses can increase case-finding related to birth planning needs both in health care classes or within established groups in the community.^ieng


Subject(s)
Delivery of Health Care , Family Planning Services , Human Rights , Adult , Birth Rate , Cuba , Educational Status , Female , Humans , Infant, Newborn , Motivation , Population Growth , Pregnancy , Public Policy , Socioeconomic Factors
6.
Int J Health Serv ; 3(4): 557-60, 1973.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-4596078

ABSTRACT

PIP: The major reasons given for population planning are health, human rights, ecological balance and political economy of population size. Contraception, however, is an old subject and has been used since classical times. France showed the earliest widespread use of contraception in Europe in the nineteenth century with the goal of improvement of family status. The extension of birth control in the U.S. was promoted by feminists such as Goldmann and Sanger as a necessary part in the emancipation of woman. The eugenics philosophy of population bloomed in the 1920s and 1930s and led in part to the policies of Hitler. In the 1960s the demographic factors of population growth were given more consideration. In the mid 1960s ecologists explained population growth as a damaging force to the environment through its depletion of resources and pollution, and thus felt it must be limited on ecological grounds. This mixture of reasons for population planning has led to a decrease in humanitarian concerns and thus the health and welfare of clients is often not the prime concern in population programs.^ieng


Subject(s)
Family Planning Services , Abortion, Induced , Africa , Asia , Contraception , Culture , Developing Countries , Ecology , Ethics , Eugenics , Europe , Family Planning Services/history , Female , History, 16th Century , History, 18th Century , History, 19th Century , History, 20th Century , History, Ancient , Humans , North America , Politics , Population Growth , Pregnancy , Social Planning , South America
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