Nuptiality and fertility in the Dominican Republic.

Women in marital unions had more live births than those in consensual unions. The relationship between cumulative fertility and the number of fertile sexual unions is positive for the early childbearing years and negative for the later ones. There is no consistent pattern of relationship between fertility and the sociocultural independent variables for different subgroups according to nuptiality pattern. The relationship between fertility and nuptiality in the Dominican Republic is consistent with that for the Caribbean region.

PIP: World Fertility Survey data from 1977 were used to investigate the relationship between fertility and nuptiality (marital versus consensual unions) in the Dominican Republic. Over half of all women surveyed in the age groups 15-49 years were in consensual unions and survey subjects averaged 1.42 sexual unions. Overall, women currently married had about 1 more live birth than those not currently married. For women in unions less than 5 years, there was no difference in current levels of fertility. Women who were married and in a sexual union for 5-9 years averaged 1/4 of a live birth less than those in consensual unions; however, women in a sexual union for 10 years and more had higher current fertility levels than unmarried women. Married women in a sexual union for 20 years or more had 1.5 more live births than unmarried women. Overall, women who were initially in a consensual union and then married have 0.26 more live births than women who were initially married and remained married. Those who began sexual relations in, and are still in, a consensual union have almost 1 birth less than married women. Thus, in the 10 years following 1st sexual intercourse women in the 2 unstable unions (consensual union and consensual union followed by marriage) have higher fertility than those who were initially and remain married. After 10 years, though, the initially married women who remained have the highest fertility levels and women who changed from consensual to married unions have the 2nd highest level. There is no consistent pattern of relationship between fertility and independent variables such as education, residence, age, and contraceptive use for the different nuptiality subgroups. Given increased reliance on effective use of contraception and a convergence of family size desires, the fertility differential between women in married versus consensual unions may diminish in the future.

New approaches for estimating the demand for children.

PIP: This paper estimates the instantaneous demand for children during each month of the reproductive span. It does so by analyzing survey data on the desire to conceive as a function of 2 variables: parity and months elapsed since entry to each parity. Based on the estimates of the instantaneous demand for children, the paper develops a unified model for estimating desired conception waits, desired birth intervals, number of births wanted over a lifetime, the desired level of contraceptive prevalence, and the unmet need for contraception. The model is applied to Ecuador, Ghana, Malaysia and the Republic of Korea. In 3 of the 4 countries, substantial numbers of women desire very long birth intervals; if that preference for long birth intervals were realized, fertility would be substantially reduced. In all 4 countries there is a fraction of women whose desired conception wait is so short as to endanger maternal health and raise child mortality. In all 4 countries, the mean number of children that women would bear if they conceived only when they wanted to is very much lower than the contemporaneous total fertility rate and is substantially lower than desired family size. The estimates indicate that if women fully implemented their postponing and terminating preferences, fertility would decline by 58% in Ecuador, 25% in Ghana, 42% in Malaysia and 31% in the Republic of Korea. The level of contraceptive prevalence that would come into being if women implemented their postponing and terminating preferences is much higher than the actual level of contraceptive prevalence, thus indicating high levels of unmet need for contraceptives. These findings have implications for population policy in the areas of maternal health and child mortality, fertility and family planning.^ieng

Low forager fertility: demographic characteristic or methodological artifact?

PIP: Anthropological literature has long held that traditional foraging populations have low fertility levels. This research examines the number of live births per woman for 9 non-western forager groups who have been investigated in the last 20 years. Data are derived from 1) birth registration systems, 2) surveys conducted during short stays with the group, and 3) surveys conducted as part of longer ethnographic studies. Fertility rates for the groups are 1) 3.5 for the Kiunga area of Papula, New Guinea, 2) 4.2 for Northern Territory Australian aborigines, 3) 5.0 for Cayapo groups in Brazil, 4) 5.3 for Hiowe people of New Guinea, 5) 5.7 for 3 Xavante groups in Brazil, 6) 6.0 for West Alaskan Eskimos, 7) 6.9 for Nunamiut Eskimos of Alaska, 8) 7.6 for the Bisman-Asmat group of Indonesian New Guinea, and 9) 8.4 for the Winikina Warao of Venezuela. Since fertility rates are highest when ethnographic studies, which allow for question clarification, memory recall, and cross-checking, are used, the author believes that high fertility rates most accurately represent forager societies. Research on the Dobe ]Kung (fertility rate - 4.7), may contradict these findings, but the author believes that the ]Kung fertility rates are higher than reported because of infanticide practices, sexual abstinence during lactation, and disease related fertility problems. In summary, the study finds high fertility (7-9 births) in traditional foraging societies. Although the study examines small populations, correlation strength and overall consistency help verify the results.^ieng

[Demographic characteristics, wish and intent to procreate, and the use of contraception in a group of women in Mexico City]. / Características demográficas, deseo, intención de procreación y uso de anticoncepción en un grupo de mujeres de la ciudad de México.

PIP: 156 fertile, sexually active women aged 17-47 from the Northwest zone of Mexico City were interviewed during 1980 to explore the relationship between several demographic variables, their intention to have a child within 2 years, and birth control practice. The average age of the respondents was 28, the average duration of union was 7 years, and the average number of living children was 2. 85 women stated they wanted no more children, and the maximum number desired by any respondent was 6. 41 women stated they intended to conceive a child within 2 years. 28 used no contraception, 76 used an IUD or hormonal method, and the remainder used other methods including rhythm, withdrawal, spermicides, and condoms. A significant inverse relationship was found between the woman's age, number of living children, and duration of marriage, and the desire to have children. Women desiring 1 or more children were under 36 years old, in unions for 4 or fewer years, and had 2 or fewer living children. 29 women stated they wanted a child but did not intend to conceive within 2 years. No significant relationship was found between the intention to have a child within 2 years and birth control practice. Women with at least 1 child and married 2 or more years were however more likely to use birth control. No significant difference was found between women employing efficient contraceptive methods (IUDs and hormonal methods) and those using other methods.^ieng

[Fertility in Bogota, Medellin, Cali, and Barranquilla. National Household Survey: stage 15]. / La fedundidad en Bogota, Medellin, Cali y Barranquilla. Encuesta Nacional de Hogares: etapa 15

PIP: This document presents the results of the household survey conducted in 1977 in Bogota, Medellin, Cali, and Barranquilla in Colombia. Main objective of the survey was to gather reliable indicators of fertility rate. The survey included 6084 households and a total of 9561 women aged 15-49. Fertility rate decreased in 3 cities between 1973 and 1977; from 87 to 84/1000 in Bogota, from 77 to 70/1000 in Medellin, from 94 to 90/1000 in Cali, and it increased from 93 to 106/1000 in Barranquilla; consequently family size decreased during the same period. Several reasons can explain this decrease in the fertility rate: 1) a decrease in the percentage of legally or consensually married women, 2) an increase of 0.19 to 1.21 years in the age at marriage, and 3) an increase in the age at first delivery. A direct and inverse correlation was found between the educational level of the mother and parity, and between the marital status of the mother and parity, married women having more children and earlier in life than either unmarried women or women living in consensual unions. In all cities surveyed women holding a job outside of the home had fewer children than housewives, 3.1 versus 3.5 in Bogota, 3.3 versus 4.6 in Medellin, 3.1 versus 3.5 in Cali, and 3.3 versus 3.9 in Barranquilla. It must be remembered that the percentage of women in the labor force has increased from 35%, 31%, 29%, and 29% in 1964, to 38%, 39%, 39%, and 36% in 1977 in the 4 cities considered. Women coming from rural areas and living in the city for less than 1 year have the highest fertility rate, in all age groups. Registration of births is not always accurate; married women tend to register the birth of their children more than unmarried, separated, or widowed mothers. The percentage of births outside the hospital was, in 1977, 15% in Bogota, 13% in Medellin, 22% in Cali, and 26% in Barranquilla. The higher socioeconomic classes tend to go to the hospital for delivery more than the lower classes. Barranquilla is the city with the highest percentage of multiple deliveries, or 5.1%.^ieng

Fertility differences between the family of orientation and the family or procreation in Barbados.

PIP: Data from an island-wide probability sample of 4119 Barbadian females aged 16-50 were used to study whether there has been an intergenerational fertility decline between the respondents and their mothers. The fertility of the respondents, all from the low or lower middle class, was significantly lower than that of their mothers. However, the size of the family of procreation was seen to be positively related to the size of the family of orientation; i.e., those from large families tended to have large families and vice versa. There was, however, a regression to the mean. There were no differences between women from small and large families as to fertility norms, age at 1st use of contraceptives, or actual practice of contraception. Women from small families did tend to enter sexual relationships and get pregnant at a later age. The women from small families were better educated, earned higher incomes, and had higher status occupations, all factors which might have influenced their fertility. Women from larger families cited higher numbers for both small and large families than did the women from small families. This indicates a perceptual difference which was, in turn, related to fertility differences.^ieng