Mastery-approach and performance-approach goals predict distinct outcomes during personal academic goal pursuit.

BACKGROUND: Mastery and performance goals are typically measured as trait-like abstract goals. However, in their daily academic pursuits, students pursue more concrete goals. The pursuit of these goals is replete with obstacles that can lead to an action crisis. AIMS: We examined how mastery and performance goals affect progress, effort and well-being during academic goal pursuit. We also asked whether these goals moderated relations between an action crisis and goal pursuit. SAMPLE: 154 Israeli students (average age = 23.59 years, SD = 2.17; 62% female) preparing for an exam. METHODS: In this daily diary study, participants first reported the date of their most stressful exam, two related goals, and their trait-like achievement goals (mastery, performance). They then completed daily questionnaires assessing their progress, effort, well-being and action crisis on the 10 days leading up to the exam. RESULTS: Multilevel modelling showed mastery goals positively predicted daily goal effort and progress and negatively predicted daily action crises, while performance goals positively predicted daily negative affect and action crises. An action crisis was negatively correlated with next-day goal progress and positive affect among students with high-performance goals. In students with low-performance goals, an action crisis positively predicted next-day positive affect. Finally, for students high on mastery goals, an action crisis was unrelated to negative affect on the same day. CONCLUSIONS: Different trait-like achievement goals can be mapped onto a common personal goal and affect its pursuit differently. Mastery goals predict optimal goal pursuit, and performance goals are associated with non-optimal goal pursuit.

A social cognitive perspective on occupational identity development in college students.

Occupational identity is a central concept of career development, by providing a sense of direction and meaning across career development. This study aimed to examine how this concept can be associated with career processes through model formed by a set of socio-cognitive factors. The participants were 358 college students at a Brazilian university who completed measures of occupational identity, environmental supports and barriers, self-efficacy, goal progress, and academic satisfaction. Analysis indicates that the occupational identity status was partially well predicted by the combination of self-efficacy to cope with barriers, supports, academic satisfaction, and goal progress. These results highlight that students with a positive sense of competencies to deal with barriers and adequate levels of academic satisfaction would easily establish an occupational identity.

Red Tape and Community Workers' Proactive Behavior During COVID-19: Applying the Job Demands-Resources Model.

Since the outbreak of COVID-19, community workers' proactive behavior has played a noteworthy role in the crisis response. Previous research has not highlighted this group and their proactive behavior. To address this important gap, drawing upon the job demands-resources (JD-R) model, this study explores how red tape affects proactive behavior and investigates the mediating role of lack of goal progress (LOGP) and the moderating role of public service motivation (PSM) in this relationship. Based on a two-wave survey with a sample of 656 community workers in China, we found a negative relationship between red tape and proactive behavior. Moreover, this study showed that LOGP mediated this relationship. Contrary to our hypothesis, PSM did not moderate the relationship between LOGP and proactive behavior. These findings have important theoretical and practical implications and can better inform community work during COVID-19.

Perfectionism Moderates the Effects of Goal-Realization on Post-Competition Mood in Amateur Runners.

Perfectionism impacts how athletes evaluate their performance. However, little is known about how perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns interplay with athletes' anticipated and actual performance in predicting mood after the competition. Thus, we conducted a study with amateur runners [n = 152, (72 female, 80 male); Mean±SD age = 34.71 ± 9.57] taking part in a competitive 10-kilometer street run. Perfectionism was measured before the run, while the measurement of mood was taken during the post-competition week. Mood was operationalized in the 3D model of mood, distinguishing between energetic arousal, tense arousal, and hedonic tone. Regression analysis showed that specific patterns of associations between perfectionism and goal-realization explain 17-21% of variance in the dimensions of mood. Higher pleasure after the run was predicted by lower perfectionistic concerns and better conversion of anticipated performance into actual performance. In predicting energy and tension, moderating effects of perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, and conversion rate were observed. Johnson-Neyman technique revealed that only athletes low in perfectionistic concerns were able to benefit from lower tension when they met or exceeded their goals for the run. The higher athletes' perfectionistic strivings and conversion rate the more pronounced effects we observed for affect-energization. Results support the idea of perfectionistic reactivity, where the negative consequences of perfectionism can be observed in a lack of positive reactions to positive events. We also suggest that such a response to meeting or exceeding one's goal may contribute to the development of athlete burnout and hinder the development athlete engagement.

Partner Contributions to Goal Pursuit: Findings From Repeated Daily Life Assessments With Older Couples.

OBJECTIVES: This study focuses on the role of spouses for facilitating goal progress during a phase in life when individual resources for goal pursuit are particularly limited. Specifically, we examined the moderating role of relationship characteristics in old age for time-varying partner involvement-goal progress associations as couples engaged in their everyday lives. We also assessed time-varying associations between everyday goal progress, effectiveness of partner contributions, and spousal satisfaction with this contribution. METHODS: We used multilevel modeling to analyze data from 118 couples (Mage = 70 years, SD = 5.9; 60-87 years, 50% women; 57% White). Both partners reported their personal goals and provided information on relationship satisfaction, conflict, and support. They also provided simultaneous ratings of everyday goal progress, effort, partner involvement as well as effectiveness of and satisfaction with partner contribution up to three times daily over 7 days. RESULTS: In line with expectations, higher relationship satisfaction and support and lower conflict were associated with higher goal progress when the partner was involved in goal pursuit. Both effectiveness of and satisfaction with partner contributions were positively associated with everyday goal progress. DISCUSSION: Whether partner involvement is beneficial for goal progress depends on characteristics of the relationship as well as what partners actually do in everyday life. This highlights the importance of considering both stable person characteristics as well as time-varying processes to capture the complexity of goal pursuit in older couples.

Balancing making a difference with making a living in the conservation sector.

Goals play important roles in people's lives because they focus attention, mobilize effort, and sustain motivation. Understanding conservationists' satisfaction with goal progress may provide insights into real-world environmental trends and flag risks to their well-being and motivation. We asked 2694 conservationists working globally how satisfied they were with progress toward goals important to them. We then explored how this satisfaction varied among groups, including demographic and occupational. Finally, we looked at respondents' experiences associated with goal-progress satisfaction. Many (94.0%) indicated that making a meaningful contribution to conservation was an important goal for them, and over half were satisfied or very satisfied in this area (52.5%). However, respondents were generally dissatisfied with progress on collective conservation goals (e.g., stopping species loss). Some groups were more likely to report dissatisfaction than others. For instance, those in conservation for longer tended to be less satisfied with collective goal progress (log odds -0.21, 95% credibility interval [CI] -0.32 to -0.10), but practitioners reported greater satisfaction (log odds 0.38, 95% CI 0.15-0.60). Likewise, those who were more optimistic in life (log odds 0.24, 95% CI 0.17-0.32), male (log odds 0.25, 95% CI 0.10-0.41), and working in conservation practice (log odds 0.25, 95% CI 0.08-0.43) reported greater satisfaction with individual goal progress. Free-text responses suggested widespread dissatisfaction with livelihood goals, particularly related to job security and adequate compensation. Although contributing to conservation appeared to be a source of satisfaction, slow goal progress in other areas--particularly around making a living--looked to be a source of distress and demotivation. Employers, funders, professional societies, and others should consider ways to help those in the sector make a difference while making a satisfactory living by, for example, prioritizing conservationists' well-being when allocating funding. This support could include avoiding exploitative practices, fostering supportive work environments, and celebrating positive outcomes.

El Balance entre Hacer una Diferencia y Ganarse la Vida en el Sector de la Conservación 21-323 Resumen Los objetivos juegan un papel importante en la vida de las personas porque enfocan la atención, movilizan esfuerzos y mantienen la motivación. El entendimiento de la satisfacción de los conservacionistas con el progreso de sus objetivos podría proporcionar información sobre las tendencias ambientales del mundo real y marcar los riesgos para su bienestar y motivaciones. Les preguntamos a 2694 conservacionistas trabajando alrededor del mundo cuán satisfechos están con el progreso hacia los objetivos que consideran más importantes. Después exploramos cómo esta satisfacción varió entre grupos, incluyendo grupos demográficos y laborales. Finalmente, observamos las experiencias de los respondientes asociadas con la satisfacción con el progreso de los objetivos. Muchos (94%) indicaron que contribuir significativamente a la conservación es un objetivo importante para ellos, y más de la mitad estuvieron satisfechos o muy satisfechos en este campo (52.5%). Sin embargo, los respondientes también mostraron una inconformidad generalizada con el progreso de los objetivos colectivos de conservación (p. ej.: detener la pérdida de especies). Algunos grupos tuvieron una mayor probabilidad de reportar inconformidades que otros grupos. Por ejemplo, aquellos con mayor tiempo en la conservación tendieron a estar menos satisfechos con el progreso de los objetivos colectivos (probabilidad log -0.21, 95% intervalo de credibilidad [IC] -0.32 a -0.10), pero los practicantes reportaron una mayor satisfacción (probabilidad log 0.38, 95% IC 0.15-0.60). De igual manera, quienes cuentan con mayor optimismo cotidiano (probabilidad log 0.24, 95% IC 0.17-0.32), son de sexo masculino (probabilidad log 0.25, 95% IC 0.10-0.41) y trabajan en la práctica de la conservación (probabilidad log 0.25, 95% IC 0.08-0.43) reportaron una mayor satisfacción con el progreso de los objetivos individuales. Las respuestas de texto libre sugirieron una inconformidad generalizada con los objetivos de sustento, particularmente los relacionados con la seguridad laboral y las compensaciones adecuadas. Aunque contribuir a la conservación parece ser una fuente de satisfacción, el progreso lento de los objetivos en otras áreas - particularmente las relacionadas con ganarse la vida - indicaba ser una fuente de angustia y desmotivación. Los empleadores, financiadores, las sociedades profesionales y demás deberían considerar maneras para ayudar a aquellos en el sector de la conservación a lograr una diferencia a la vez que se ganan la vida satisfactoriamente, por ejemplo, mediante la priorización del bienestar de los conservacionistas al momento de asignar financiamientos. Este apoyo podría incluir evitar prácticas explotadoras, fomentar ambientes de trabajo solidarios y celebrar los resultados positivos.

Exploring Relationships Between Grit, Belonging, Institutional Compassion, Pandemic Stress, and Goal Progress Among Emerging Adult Post-Secondary Students.

Grit and belonging are consistently important factors in emerging adult academic outcomes (Morrow & Ackermann, 2012). This study examines the role of grit (i.e., goal perseverance, consistency of interest, and adaptability), belonging (i.e., sense of fitting in and feeling valued), and perceived institutional compassion (i.e., care/support and resources for students in pandemic-related responses) in emerging adults' academic goal pursuits amid COVID-19 challenges. Emerging adult participants (age 18-24; N = 258) representing a diverse sample of traditional, full-time, undergraduate students across the United States (60% women; 47.31% White, 18.46% Black/African American, 17.31% Asian, 10.77% Hispanic/Latino/a/x), completed an online survey assessing pandemic-related stress, grit, belonging, goal pursuits, and the newly developed Institutional Compassion Scale (Schmahl, 2021). Unexpectedly, pandemic-related stress was unrelated to student assessments of their progress toward academic short- and long-term goals. But grit and belonging were associated with pandemic-related stress: high stress is associated with a weaker sense of belonging and with lower grit. Institutional compassion was associated with all three major study variables: grit, sense of belonging, and stress. Higher institutional compassion was associated with a greater sense of belonging and less pandemic-related stress. The importance of grit, belonging, and particularly institutional compassion are discussed as they pertain to emerging adults' perceptions of themselves as progressing toward their goals during stressful periods such as the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic.

A social cognitive perspective on occupational identity development in college students

Occupational identity is a central concept of career development, by providing a sense of direction and meaning across career development. This study aimed to examine how this concept can be associated with career processes through model formed by a set of socio-cognitive factors. The participants were 358 college students at a Brazilian university who completed measures of occupational identity, environmental supports and barriers, self-efficacy, goal progress, and academic satisfaction. Analysis indicates that the occupational identity status was partially well predicted by the combination of self-efficacy to cope with barriers, supports, academic satisfaction, and goal progress. These results highlight that students with a positive sense of competencies to deal with barriers and adequate levels of academic satisfaction would easily establish an occupational identity. (AU)

On the course of goal pursuit: The influence of goal progress on explicit judgments of self-agency.

The experience of causing our own actions and resulting outcomes (i.e., self-agency) is essential for the regulation of our actions during goal pursuit. In two experiments, participants indicated experienced self-agency over presented outcomes, which varied in distance to their goal in an agency-ambiguous task. In Study 1, progress was manipulated at trial level (i.e., stimuli moved randomly or sequentially towards the goal). In Study 2, progress was constant at trial level (sequential), but varied at task level (i.e., goal discrepancy of the outcomes was random or decreased over trials). Study 1 showed that self-agency gradually increased in the progress condition as unsuccessful outcomes were objectively closer to the goal, while self-agency increased exponentially upon full goal attainment in the absence of progress. The gradual pattern for the progress condition was replicated in Study 2. These studies indicate that explicit judgments of self-agency are more flexible when there is goal progress.

Joint Goals in Older Couples: Associations With Goal Progress, Allostatic Load, and Relationship Satisfaction.

Older adults often have long-term relationships, and many of their goals are intertwined with their respective partners. Joint goals can help or hinder goal progress. Little is known about how accurately older adults assess if a goal is joint, the role of over-reporting in these perceptions, and how joint goals and over-reporting may relate to older partners' relationship satisfaction and physical health (operationally defined as allostatic load). Two-hundred-thirty-six older adults from 118 couples (50% female; M age = 71 years) listed their three most important goals and whether they thought of them as goals they had in common with and wanted to achieve together with their partner (self-reported joint goals). Two independent raters classified goals as "joint" if both partners independently listed open-ended goals of the same content. Goal progress and relationship satisfaction were assessed 1 week later. Allostatic load was calculated using nine different biomarkers. Results show that 85% self-reported at least one goal as joint. Over-reporting- the perception that a goal was joint when in fact it was not mentioned among the three most salient goals of the spouse - occurred in one-third of all goals. Multilevel models indicate that the number of externally-rated joint goals was related to greater goal progress and lower allostatic load, but only for adults with little over-reporting. More joint goals and higher over-reporting were each linked with more relationship satisfaction. In conclusion, joint goals are associated with goal progress, relationship satisfaction, and health, but the association is dependent on the domain of functioning.

Staying on track in turbulent times: Trait self-control and goal pursuit during self-quarantine.

Prior research has shown that routines and beneficial habits largely explain high self-control people's success at goal pursuit. However, COVID-19 self-quarantine measures and country-level lockdowns have largely challenged people's ability to stick to their daily routines and habits. How successful at goal pursuit are people with high self-control when the world around them is not as it used to be? We examined if self-control passes the 'quarantine test'. In an online study (N = 271), we measured trait self-control, goal progress, continued engagement in pre-pandemic goal-directed behaviors, development of new goal-directed behaviors and turning these new behaviors into habits. Results showed that during lockdown, people with higher (vs. lower) trait self-control were not only more likely to continue engaging in pre-pandemic goal-directed behaviors, but also found it easier to develop new goal-directed behaviors and were more likely to turn these behaviors into habits. High self-control people's ability to continue performing pre-pandemic goal-directed behaviors and to turn new behaviors into habits explained their success at goal attainment despite the major disruptions caused by the pandemic.

Emotion regulation during personal goal pursuit: Integration versus suppression of emotions.

OBJECTIVE: Goal pursuit may involve setbacks likely to elicit negative emotions. To continue pursuing the goal, an individual may need to regulate those emotions. In this study, we compared the unique contributions of two emotion regulation styles, integrative emotion regulation (IER) and suppressive emotion regulation (SER), to goal pursuit processes. We tested the hypotheses that IER and SER would be differentially related to goal progress and goal-related effort and goal-related depressed mood would mediate those relations. METHOD: 255 Israeli participants completed five web questionnaires at two-week intervals. We examined the mediation hypothesis using multilevel structural equation modeling. RESULTS: At the within-person level, increases in IER predicted increases in goal progress at a given time point through increases in goal-related effort, while increases in SER predicted decreases in goal progress through increases in goal-related depressed mood. At the between-persons level, participants with higher IER reported more goal progress; this effect was mediated by goal-related effort. Participants with higher SER reported lower goal progress; this effect was mediated by higher goal-related depressed mood. The findings held after controlling for such factors as participants' perceived goal competence, goal stress, sex, and age. CONCLUSIONS: IER promotes goal pursuit, but SER impedes it.

Achievement Goals and Goal Progress as Drivers of Work Engagement.

In two studies, we investigated the role of self-regulatory behavior in terms of achievement goals and goal progress for work engagement. Study 1 (N = 205) revealed that trait learning goals were positively related to work engagement and performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals were unrelated to work engagement. In a second study, employees were asked to either set a (state) learning, performance-approach, or performance-avoidance goal for the upcoming work week. Goal progress and work engagement were measured one week later (N = 106). Learning goals at the trait and state level were associated with higher work engagement and performance-avoidance goals were unrelated to work engagement. We found a positive relationship of goal progress with work engagement, in particular for employees who pursued learning or performance-approach goals. Our studies contribute to theory building by delineating the (combined) role of goal orientations (trait), state achievement goals, and goal progress for work engagement, as well as generating practical implications for the design of effective interventions to enhance work motivation in organizational practice.

Fear of Failure Mediates the Relation Between Parental Psychological Control and Academic Outcomes: A Latent Mediated-Moderation Model of Parents' and Children's Genders.

Given the negative relations between parental psychological control and various aspects of emerging adults' social and emotional adaptation, there is a need to determine whether similar relations exist for emerging adults' academic adjustment. The current study tested an integrative model using an interactionist approach of dyadic gender composition to test whether maternal and paternal psychological control are unique and interactive predictors of four different indicators of academic adjustment (i.e., academic achievement, satisfaction of academic achievement, academic goal progress, and school satisfaction) for male and female emerging adults, using fear of failure as a mediator. The sample comprised 1792 undergraduate students aged 17-25 years old (74.2% identified as females). The results showed that maternal and paternal psychological control interacted to predict students' fear of failure, and that fear of failure negatively predicted all indicators of academic adjustment. The results revealed small indirect mediation effects. For females, fear of failure mediated the relation between the interaction of psychological control and satisfaction of academic achievement. For males, fear of failure mediated the relation between the interaction of psychological control and academic goal progress. The results show that parents continue to play an important role in their children's lives during emerging adulthood, and provide insight on the mechanisms underlying such parental influence.

A longitudinal investigation of trait-goal concordance on goal progress: The mediating role of autonomous goal motivation.

OBJECTIVES: The present study investigated the benefits of matching personality traits with goal type (i.e., agentic or communal) for goal progress. Autonomous motivation was examined as a mediator. METHODS: A multi-wave prospective longitudinal design was employed to track the progress that 935 university students made in their personal goal pursuits over an academic year. Participants set three personal goals at baseline and completed measures of personality and goal motivation. Participants' goals were coded as being either agentic or communal. Goal progress was assessed mid-year (T2) and at the end of the academic year (T3). Goal motivation was reassessed mid-year (T2). RESULTS: Conscientiousness was significantly related to making better progress on agentic, but not communal, goals. Conversely, Extraversion was related to making communal, but not agentic, goal progress. These trait-goal matching effects on progress were partially mediated by goal-specific motivation, suggesting that the selection of goals that matched one's traits resulted in higher autonomous motivation at the start of the academic year. CONCLUSIONS: The selection of trait concordant personal goals is associated with autonomous goal motivation and greater goal progress. This research integrates Self-Determination Theory with trait theories of personality to enhance our understanding of variations in goal success.

Why are we together? A dyadic longitudinal investigation of relationship motivation, goal progress, and adjustment.

OBJECTIVE: This investigation used self-determination theory to study goal striving in the context of romantic relationships. The study explored how dyadic partners' relationship motivation impacted goal progress, personal well-being, and relationship satisfaction. In addition, the mediating role of relationship goal progress was explored. METHOD: In a prospective longitudinal study, 153 heterosexual couples rated their own relationship motivation and each reported a relationship goal and a self-oriented goal. Goal progress was assessed approximately 1 year later. In addition, well-being and relationship satisfaction were assessed at baseline and follow-up. RESULTS: Actor-partner interdependence models revealed that actor's autonomous relationship motivation was positively associated with relationship and self-oriented goal progress. Actor's autonomous relationship motivation, as well as both actor and partner relationship goal progress, were associated with increases in actor's subjective well-being (SWB) and relationship satisfaction. Relationship goal progress mediated the association between actor's autonomous relationship motivation and SWB, as well as relationship satisfaction. CONCLUSIONS: Together, these findings contribute to research on relationship motivation and goal striving in dyadic partners, by suggesting that motivational regulations impact goal regulation in romantic relationships and associated well-being outcomes.

A naturalistic investigation of cognitive-affective dysfunction in anorexia nervosa: The role of inefficiency.

OBJECTIVE: Research has shown that rumination and negative affect are elevated in patients with anorexia nervosa (AN), but the underlying origins remain unclear. Drawing from the theoretical framework of the Goal Progress Theory of rumination, we propose that heightened feelings of "inefficiency" (i.e., low self-efficacy) in AN might play an important role in these dysfunctional cognitive-affective processes. METHOD: Thirty-two weight-recovered participants with a history of AN and 32 healthy control participants filled out questionnaires regarding rumination and affect six times a day over a period of 2 weeks via ecological momentary assessment in real-life. RESULTS: Analyses via hierarchical as well as conceptual process modeling suggest that while inefficiency is generally associated with more rumination and negative affect, additional amplifying mechanisms between these variables exist specifically in recovered participants with a history of AN. DISCUSSION: Inefficiency as a core aspect of AN appears to trigger dysfunctional cognitive-affective processes which may contribute to vulnerability for AN.

Reducing discrepancies of personal goals in the context of cancer: A longitudinal study on the relation with well-being, psychological characteristics, and goal progress.

OBJECTIVES: To (1) examine whether reducing discrepancies between goal importance and goal attainability is an adaptive predictor of well-being, (2) investigate intrusion, awareness, optimism, and pessimism as determinants of reducing discrepancies between goal importance and goal attainability, and (3) explore how goal progress is involved in reducing discrepancies between goal importance and goal attainability during two major periods after a colorectal cancer diagnosis. DESIGN: Prospective design. METHODS: Newly diagnosed colorectal cancer patients (n = 120) were interviewed three times: within a month, 7 months (treatment period), and 18 months (follow-up period) post-diagnosis. Data were analysed using multiple regressions. RESULTS: Results showed that (1) reducing discrepancies enhances well-being, (2) optimism and pessimism are predictors of reducing discrepancies during the treatment period but not during the follow-up period, while intrusion and awareness do not predict reducing discrepancies in either period, and (3) goal progress is a predictor of reducing discrepancies during the follow-up period, but no evidence for a moderating or mediating role of goal progress in the relation between psychological characteristics and reducing discrepancies was found. CONCLUSIONS: Reducing discrepancies between goal importance and goal attainability could benefit colorectal cancer patients' well-being. Optimism, pessimism, and goal progress appear to influence cancer patients' ability to reduce discrepancies. Providing assistance in improving goal progress to those who are less optimistic and highly pessimistic may be a suitable training for cancer patients to prevent deterioration in well-being. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? More discrepancy between goal importance and goal attainability is associated with lower levels of well-being. People are able to change evaluations of importance and attainability, but it is unknown whether this positively impacts well-being. Underlying causes of differences in the extent to which discrepancies between goal importance and goal attainability are reduced are unknown. What does this study add? This is the first study to show that reducing discrepancies between goal importance and goal attainability is beneficial for well-being. This is the first study to show that optimism and pessimism are determinants of reducing discrepancies between goal importance and goal attainability. Goal progress might be an effective target for interventions that aim to facilitate one's ability to reduce discrepancies between goal importance and goal attainability.

Ovsiankina's Great Relief: How Supplemental Work during the Weekend May Contribute to Recovery in the Face of Unfinished Tasks.

Unfinished tasks have been identified as a significant job stressor that impairs employee recovery after work. Classic experimental research by Ovsiankina has shown that people tend to resume yet unfinished tasks to satisfy their need for closure. We apply this notion to current working life and examine supplemental work after hours as a means to achieve peace of mind. We investigate how progress towards goal accomplishment through supplemental work may facilitate recovery in terms of psychological detachment, relaxation, autonomy, and mastery experiences. We conducted a week-level diary study among 83 employees over a period of 14 consecutive weeks, which yielded 575 observations in total and 214 matched observations of unfinished tasks, supplemental work during the weekend, progress, and recovery experiences. Unfinished tasks were assessed on Friday. Supplemental work and recovery experiences were assessed on Monday. Multilevel modeling analyses provide evidence that unfinished tasks at the end of the work week are associated with lower levels of detachment at the intraindividual level, tend to relate to lower relaxation, but are unrelated to autonomy and mastery. Progress towards finishing tasks during the weekend alleviates the detrimental effects of unfinished tasks on both kinds of recovery experiences. Supplemental work is negatively linked to detachment, but largely unrelated to the other recovery experiences.

Which Factors Are Associated with Monitoring Goal Progress?

Three studies examined how people assess their progress on personal goals (e.g., whether they compare their progress to the past and/or to a desired target state), along with factors that might influence the nature of progress monitoring (e.g., whether the goal involves attaining a positive outcome or avoiding a negative outcome). Study 1 involved semi-structured interviews with 40 participants, in which we examined how participants monitored their progress and whether this was related to: (a) their level of self-efficacy, (b) whether the goal was prevention focused, and (c) whether goal progress was represented in quantifiable terms. Studies 2 (N = 492) and 3 (N = 481) were conducted online and additionally examined whether how participants monitored their progress differed as a function of the domain of the goal (i.e., whether it was related to physical development/health, finances, work/study, or social relationships). The findings suggest that participants: (i) were less likely to monitor their progress toward goals that were related to avoiding negative outcomes, (ii) were less likely to monitor their progress toward goals related to finances, work, or study with reference to the past, than progress toward other goals (e.g., those relating to physical development and health), (iii) found it easier to monitor their progress toward goals that they felt confident of attaining, but harder to monitor their progress toward goals related to work or study. Finally, the more participants thought about their goal in quantifiable terms, the more likely they were to monitor their progress, and the easier they found monitoring their progress to be. Taken together, these studies begin to describe the nature of progress monitoring and the factors that influence this important self-regulatory process.