Austerity Measures and the Resilience of Zimbabwe's Healthcare System: Challenges and Solutions.

Austerity measures have become a contentious topic, shaping the landscape of health care systems around the world. As governments grapple with economic challenges, the impact of austerity on health care has emerged as a critical concern. This study focuses on the consequences of austerity actions adopted by the Zimbabwean government under the Transitional Stabilization Program (TSP) from August 2018 to December 2025. This research examines the impact of austerity measures on Zimbabwe's health care sector, exploring its connections with health infrastructure and resources, accessibility and affordability of health care, health funding, health care inequalities, and the health care workforce. Using a quantitative approach and data from 970 participants, including the general populace, health care providers, and government officials, significant positive correlations between austerity measures and these health care variables were identified. The findings indicated a noteworthy positive correlation between the independent variable "austerity measures" and five dependent variables: health care accessibility and affordability, health care inequalities, infrastructure and resources, health care funding, and health care workforce. The t-statistics values exceeded the threshold of 1.96, with values of 5.085, 3.120, 6.459, 8.517, and 3.830, respectively. These findings highlight the importance of considering the effects of austerity on health care access, health funding, health care inequalities, health workforce, health infrastructure and resources development. Policymakers should prioritize equitable resource allocation and targeted investments to strengthen the resilience of the health care system during economic challenges. Understanding these associations is crucial for evidence-based policy decisions and fostering a more equitable and resilient health care system in Zimbabwe.

Differences in healthcare use and mortality in older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic: Exploring long-term care users' vulnerability.

Background: The objective of our study is to analyze the health care received by older adults with COVID-19 according to their place of residence (whether or not they live in a long-term care [LTC] facility) and to find out the effect of health care on mortality. Methods: Retrospective cohort study based in Aragón (Spain) from March 2020 to March 2021 in patients aged 65 years or older with a confirmed COVID-19 infection. The population was classified according to their place of residence (living in a LTC or not). A propensity score was used to match individuals by sex and age. The effect of living in a LTC facility on healthcare delivery and mortality was conducted using adjusted multivariate models. Varimp was used to estimate the best predictors of mortality for both groups. Results: Healthcare services utilization varied depending on whether the patients lived in a LTC facility or not. The time to diagnosis was shorter in institutionalized patients, but the time to hospital admission was longer. Length of hospital stays, risk of ICU admission and 30-day mortality were also different and remained statistically significant in the adjusted models. The variables that were more important in the association between healthcare utilization and mortality were those associated with greater severity of COVID-19. Conclusions: There were differences in health care for older adults diagnosed with COVID-19 according to their place of residence. There is a need to strengthen collaboration between professionals in LTC centers and health services to provide equitable health care.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) Reveals Ethnic Disparities in Cataract Detection and Treatment.

INTRODUCTION: The aim of this work is to identify patients at risk of limited access to healthcare through artificial intelligence using a name-ethnicity classifier (NEC) analyzing the clinical stage of cataract at diagnosis and preoperative visual acuity. METHODS: This retrospective, cross-sectional study includes patients seen in the cataract clinic of a tertiary care hospital between September 2017 and February 2020 with subsequent cataract surgery in at least one eye. We analyzed 4971 patients and 8542 eyes undergoing surgery. RESULTS: The NEC identified 360 patients with names classified as 'non-German' compared to 4611 classified as 'German'. Advanced cataract (7 vs. 5%; p = 0.025) was significantly associated with group 'non-German'. Mean best-corrected visual acuity in group 'non-German' was 0.464 ± 0.406 (LogMAR), and in group 'German' was 0.420 ± 0.334 (p = 0.009). This difference remained significant after exclusion of patients with non-lenticular ocular comorbidities. Surgical time and intraoperative complications did not differ between the groups. Retrobulbar or general anesthesia was chosen significantly more frequently over topical anesthesia in group 'non-German' compared to group 'German' (24 vs. 18% respectively; p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that artificial intelligence is able to uncover health disparities between people with German compared to non-German names using NECs. Patients with non-German names, possibly facing various social barriers to healthcare access such as language barriers, have more advanced cataracts and worse visual acuity upon presentation. Artificial intelligence may prove useful for healthcare providers to discover and counteract such inequalities and establish tailored preventive measures to decrease morbidity in vulnerable population subgroups.

Implementing and evaluating resources to support good maternity care for parents with learning disabilities: A qualitative feasibility study in England.

PROBLEM: Parents with learning disabilities are often disadvantaged and their needs not well understood in maternity services. BACKGROUND: Despite a global vision to improve maternity care, current evidence confirms poor pre- and post-natal care for parents with learning disabilities and their families. Midwives have expressed a need for support in the delivery of good care to this population of parents. AIM: To test the feasibility of implementing and evaluating two evidence-based and values-based resources - the Together Toolkit and Maternity Passport - to support good maternity care for people with learning disabilities. METHODS: A qualitative feasibility study employing semi-structured interviews with 17 midwives and 6 parents who had used the resources in practice in four NHS Trusts in the south of England. FINDINGS: Midwives and parents described how the resources positively impacted maternity care by enabling midwives, connecting networks and empowering parents. Factors affecting effective implementation of the resources were reported at an individual and setting level. DISCUSSION: Staff training to raise awareness and confidence in supporting parents with learning disabilities, and improved systems for recording parent's individual needs are required to enable the delivery of personalised care. CONCLUSION: Reasonable adjustments need to be prioritised to facilitate implementation of resources to support personalised maternity care and to address inequity for parents with learning disabilities. Aspirations for equity suggested commitment from midwives to challenge and overcome barriers to implementation. Recommendations were made to improve the resources and their implementation. These resources are free and accessible for use [www.surrey.ac.uk/togetherproject].

The Color of Medicine.

During my family medicine residency training, I was the junior doctor on the wards team when we encountered a young Black man who was hesitant to begin a new medication. I was also the only Black person on the team. After some initial trepidation about speaking up, I discussed my experiences with the patient and his mother and helped them see that the medication was not something to be feared. Later I faced criticism from a senior team member for bringing up the topic of race. Race is in fact an important consideration when treating patients. Understanding patients' lived experiences, especially when it comes to race, is essential in providing equitable health care.

Socioeconomic Challenges in the Rural Patient Population in Need of Total Joint Arthroplasty.

Many challenges exist for the rural patient in need of joint arthroplasty. Optimization for surgery is more difficult due to factors such as deprivation, education, employment, household income, and access to proper surgical institutions. Rural individuals have less access to primary care and even less access to surgical specialists, creating a distinct subset of patients who endure higher costs, poorer outcomes, and lack of care. Reducing socioeconomic disparities in rural communities will require policy initiatives addressing the components of socioeconomic status (income, education, and occupation). Hopefully remote patient technologies can help with access and timely addressing of modifiable risk factors.

Oral health profile of Australian children from different immigrant backgrounds.

OBJECTIVES: To profile the oral health of Australian children from different immigrant backgrounds. METHOD: Cross-sectional data for Australian children were obtained from the 2012-14 National Child Oral Health Study (NCOHS). Three categories of immigrant status were created based on parents' country of birth and language (non-immigrant, non-visible immigrant, and visible immigrant). Descriptive analyses reported weighted estimates for experience of dental caries, self-rated oral health, and dental services utilisation separately for children aged 5-9 years and 10-14 years. RESULTS: The sample comprised 10,610 children aged 5-9 years (3,605 from immigrant backgrounds), and 8,741 children aged 10-14 years (3,074 from immigrant backgrounds). Children from non-visible immigrant backgrounds presented worse dental service utilisation and poorer self-rated oral health than children from non-immigrant and visible immigrant families. Greater inequalities in dental caries experience were observed in the 5-9-year-olds. Untreated caries was substantially higher among visible immigrant children aged 5-9 years (38.8%, 95% CI: 35.5-42.3) than non-immigrant (24.9%, 95% CI: 23.4-26.6) and non-visible immigrant children (21.0%, 95% CI: 17.7-24.7). CONCLUSIONS: Australian children from immigrant families constitute a highly heterogeneous group with substantial discrepancies in oral health outcomes.

Immigrants experience oral health care inequity: findings from Australia's National Study of Adult Oral Health.

BACKGROUND: Oral health service utilization contributes to positive oral health and indicates realised access to services. The study aimed to describe patterns of oral health service use among overseas-born and Australian-born populations and assess equity in access to services. METHODS: The study used data from Australia's National Study of Adult Oral Health 2017-2018 and was guided by the Aday and Andersen framework of access to health and Australia's National Oral Health Plan. Descriptive analyses of service use by perceived need, enabling and predisposing factors were compared between four groups: Australian-born and overseas-born who mainly speak English and Australian-born and overseas-born who mainly speak a language other than English. RESULTS: Overseas-born who mainly speak a language other than English experienced greater oral health care inequity, largely driven by financial difficulty (avoided care due to cost: 42% vs 27%-28%; avoided/delayed visiting due to cost: 48% vs. 37%-38%; cost prevented treatment: 32% vs. 18%-24%). The most favourable visiting patterns were among the Australian-born population who speak a language other than English. CONCLUSIONS: The study shows clear inequity experienced among immigrants in accessibility as measured through indicators of oral health care utilization and factors related to inequity, such as the ability to pay for services.

Iatrogenia pandémica: la exclusión y el rezago en la atención médica, no COVID, en la Ciudad de México / Pandemic iatrogenesis: exclusion and lag in non-COVID medical care in Mexico City

Resumen El artículo analiza, desde una perspectiva cualitativa, cómo la pandemia de COVID-19 ha reducido significativamente la atención médica de pacientes crónicos, en los tres niveles del sector salud de la Ciudad de México, debido a las estrategias de mitigación comunitaria; la percepción del riesgo de infección del personal de salud y los pacientes; la focalización en la atención a la pandemia, y a como estos procesos se articulan con las condiciones previas de desfinanciamiento del sistema público de salud. Para ello utilizamos el enfoque de la teoría fundamentada basándonos en la descripción y el análisis de las experiencias de 42 médicas y médicos entrevistados en los tres niveles de atención. Se propone el concepto de iatrogenia pandémica para abordar la interrelación entre la organización material y simbólica del modelo dominante de atención médica y ciertas dimensiones estructurales y culturales de la desatención masiva y sistémica desde la llegada de la pandemia. A partir de esta propuesta teórica y de las experiencias de las médicas y los médicos entrevistados, se señalan algunas estrategias y posibilidades para evitar escenarios futuros similares.

Abstract The paper analyzes, from a qualitative perspective, how the COVID-19 pandemic has significantly reduced medical care for chronic patients at the three levels of the Mexico City health sector due to community mitigation strategies, the perceived risk of infection of health personnel and patients, the focus on pandemic care, and how these processes are articulated with the previous underfunding conditions of the public health system. Thus, we adopted the Grounded Theory approach based on the description and analysis of the experiences of 42 doctors interviewed at the three care levels. The pandemic iatrogenesis concept is proposed to address the interrelation between the material and symbolic organization of the dominant model of medical care and specific structural and cultural dimensions of massive and systemic neglect since the arrival of the pandemic. We point out some strategies and possibilities to avoid similar future settings based on this theoretical proposal and the experiences of the doctors interviewed.

A Retrospective Study on Clinical Assessment of Cognitive Impairment in a Swedish Cohort: Is There Inequality Between Natives and Foreign-Born?

BACKGROUND: People with a migration background are underrepresented in dementia research and disfavored in assessment and treatment, and many foreign-born individuals with dementia remain undiagnosed. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to examine whether there is inequality in the clinical assessment of dementia between native and foreign-born individuals in Sweden. METHODS: Information was gathered retrospectively from a cohort of 91 native and 36 foreign-born patients attending four memory clinics in Skåne, Sweden. Data included information on cognitive test results, cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers, scores at structural imaging scales of global cortical atrophy (GCA), medial temporal lobe atrophy (MTA) and the Fazekas scale, laboratory measures of thyroid-stimulating hormone, calcium, albumin, homocysteine, hemoglobin, cobalamin (vitamin B12), and folate (vitamin B9), contact with health care, and treatment. RESULTS: Foreign-born patients had lower educational level and scored lower on Mini-Mental State Examination and Clock Drawing Test (p < 0.001-0.011). Relatives initiated contact with health care to a higher extent in the foreign-born group (p = 0.031). Foreign-born patients had less white matter lesions (p = 0.018). Additionally, Alzheimer's disease (AD) biomarkers were significantly less used in foreign-born patients to support an AD diagnosis (p = 0.001). No significant differences were found for scores on GCA and MTA, laboratory measures, or initiated treatment. CONCLUSION: Although native and foreign-born patients were predominantly homogenous regarding examined variables, differences in the diagnostic process and underlying biological correlates of dementia exist and need to be further investigated in a larger sample.

COVID-19 Effects on Income and Dental Visits: A Cross-sectional Study.

OBJECTIVES: In April 2020, the Japanese government declared a state of emergency owing to the outbreak of the novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, which resulted in reduced workforce and job losses. Furthermore, income is one of the most consistent predictors of dental visits. Therefore, this study examined the association between income changes and dental clinic visits during the COVID-19 state of emergency in Japan. METHODS: An online, self-reported cross-sectional survey about health activities including dental visits during the first COVID-19 state of emergency was conducted in Osaka, Japan (June 23 to July 12, 2020). Among participants with toothaches, the assessment for the association between "refrained from visiting a dentist despite wanting treatment for toothache during the state of emergency (refrained treatment)" and income changes before and after the state of emergency using a multivariate Poisson regression model adjusted for sex, age, self-rated health, frequency of regular dental visits, and employment status. RESULTS: Among 27,575 participants, 3,895 (14.1%) had toothaches, and 1,906 (6.9%) reported refrained treatment. Among people with decreased income (n = 8,152, 29.6% of overall participants), the proportions of the refrained treatment group were 8.0% (income decreased by 1%-49%), 9.9% (50%-99% decreased), and 9.1% (100% decreased). Among participants with toothache, after adjusting for all variables, compared with participants with no income change, we observed significantly higher prevalence ratios (PRs) for refrained treatment in those who experienced a decreased income owing to COVID-19 (1%-49% decrease: PR = 1.08; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.005-1.17; 50%-99% decrease: PR = 1.18; 95% CI, 1.06-1.32; 100% decrease: PR = 1.18; 95% CI, 1.04-1.33). CONCLUSION: Decreased income was associated with refrained dental treatment during the COVID-19 state of emergency in Osaka, Japan. The economic damage related to the COVID-19 pandemic could lead to oral health inequalities. KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER STATEMENT: Our study found that individuals with decreased income owing to COVID-19 before and after the state of emergency showed significantly higher prevalence ratios for refraining from visiting a dentist despite wanting treatment for toothache. We believe that our study makes a significant contribution because it provides novel, basic data that economic damages related to the COVID-19 pandemic might expand to oral health inequalities.

Economic analysis of an educational human security model in southwestern bateyes of the Dominican Republic / Análisis económico de un modelo educativo de seguridad humana en los bateyes del suroeste de la República Dominicana

Objetivos: realizar un análisis económico para evaluar los costos de una intervención educativa, utilizando los principios de un modelo de seguridad humana en Bateyes del suroeste de la República Dominicana. Métodos: se consideraron cuatro recursos de intervención, incluyendo la capacitación del personal, los incentivos mensuales, la supervisión de las actividades de campo y el costo total asociado al tratamiento anual de la diarrea aguda. El gasto se comparó entre el programa estándar de atención (Batey Control) y la intervención con el modelo de seguridad humana (Batey Caso). Resultados: el ahorro del costo total anual para el Ministerio de Salud de República Dominicana asociado con la reducción de la incidencia de episodios de diarrea aguda fue de US$252,399. Si se extrapolan a los 300 Bateyes de República Dominicana, se podría ahorrar aproximadamente US$75 millones en prevención de enfermedades infecciosas. Conclusiones: el modelo de seguridad humana luce ser un método eficaz para mejorar el conocimiento sobre la prevención de enfermedades y aumentar el empoderamiento de la comunidad para la movilización de recursos. Aplicada a otros entornos, la intervención podría tener una incidencia beneficiosa en las poblaciones de refugiados e indocumentados bajo el impacto de la violencia estructural.

Objectives: To conduct an economic analysis to evaluate the costs of an educational intervention, using the human security model, and potential sources of economic benefits, in Southwestern Bateyes in the Dominican Republic. Methods: Four intervention resources were considered, including staff training, monthly incentives, supervision of field activities, and total cost associated with annual treatment for acute diarrhea. The expenditure was compared between the standard program of care and the intervention using the human security model. Results: The total annual cost saving to the Dominican Republic Ministry of Health, associated with reducing the incidence of acute diarrhea episodes, was US$252,399. If this is extrapolated to the 300 Bateyes of the Dominican Republic, the Ministry of Health could save approximately US$75 million in infectious disease prevention by implementing this intervention model in these isolated rural communities. Conclusions: The educational intervention, which incorporated a human security approach, appeared to be an effective method to enhance knowledge about disease prevention and to increase empathy among community members for resource mobilization and local empowerment. Applied to other settings, the intervention could have a beneficial impact on refugee and undocumented populations under the

Social Determinants of Health, Race, and Diabetes Population Health Improvement: Black/African Americans as a Population Exemplar.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: To summarize evidence of impact of social determinants of health (SDOH) on diabetes risk, morbidity, and mortality and to illustrate this impact in a population context. RECENT FINDINGS: Key findings from the American Diabetes Association's scientific review of five SDOH domains (socioeconomic status, neighborhood and physical environment, food environment, health care, social context) are highlighted. Population-based data on Black/African American adults illustrate persisting diabetes disparities and inequities in the SDOH conditions in which this population is born, grows, lives, and ages, with historical contributors. SDOH recommendations from US national committees largely address a health sector response, including health professional education, SDOH measurement, and patient referral to services for social needs. Fewer recommendations address solutions for systemic racism and socioeconomic discrimination as root causes. SDOH are systemic, population-based, cyclical, and intergenerational, requiring extension beyond health care solutions to multi-sector and multi-policy approaches to achieve future population health improvement.

Changes in Access to Health Services during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Scoping Review.

The COVID-19 pandemic and the measures adopted are having a profound impact on a major goal of public healthcare systems: universal access to health services. The objective is to synthesize the available knowledge on access to health care for non-COVID-19 conditions and to identify knowledge gaps. A scoping review was conducted searching different databases (Medline, Google Scholar, etc.) for original articles published between December 2019 and September 2021. A total of 53 articles were selected and analyzed using the Aday and Andersen framework as a guide. Of these, 37 analyzed changes in levels of use of health services, 15 focused on the influencing factors and barriers to access, and 1 studied both aspects. Most focused on specific diseases and the early stages of the pandemic, based on a review of records. Analyses of the impact on primary care services' use, unmet needs or inequalities in access were scarce. A generalized reduction in the use of health services was described. The most frequent access barrier described for non-COVID-19 conditions related to the services was a lack of resources, while barriers related to the population were predisposing (fear of contagion, stigma, or anticipating barriers) and enabling characteristics (worse socioeconomic status and an increase in technological barriers). In conclusion, our results show a general reduction in services' use in the early stages of the pandemic, as well as new barriers to access and the exacerbation of existing ones. In view of these results, more studies are required on the subsequent stages of the pandemic, to shed more light on the factors that have influenced access and the pandemic's impact on equity of access.

Income Inequalities and Risk of Early Rehospitalization for Diabetes, Hypertension and Congestive Heart Failure in the Canadian Working-Age Population.

OBJECTIVES: In the Canadian context of universal health-care coverage, income inequalities are understudied as potentially predictive of the timings and patterns of repeat hospitalizations for diabetes, despite this condition requiring self-care practices entailing appreciable out-of-pocket expenses in daily life. In this study, we examined the relationships between income disparities and risk of earlier readmission for diabetes and commonly comorbid chronic conditions in the working-age population. METHODS: The cohort study exploited 2006 population census data linked longitudinally to 3 years of hospital records from the Discharge Abstract Database among adults 25 to 64 years of age. Multiple regression survival models were used to test the associations of income group with cause-specific times to rehospitalization for diabetes (types 1 and 2) and 5 additional conditions, controlling for other individual sociodemographics. RESULTS: The mean time to rehospitalization for diabetes was 223 days (N=4,540). Compared with those in the lowest income quintile, the adjusted risk of earlier readmission was significantly lower among inpatients in the highest income quintile for diabetes (hazard ratio [HR]=0.89; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.80 to 0.99) and for the diabetes-concordant conditions of congestive heart failure (HR=0.81; 95% CI, 0.66 to 0.99) and hypertension (HR=0.85; 95% CI, 0.76 to 0.95). No significant associations between income and readmission intervals were observed for the discordant conditions of angina, asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. CONCLUSIONS: Delays in rehospitalization for diabetes and concordant conditions among the most affluent suggest the persistence of income-mediated differences in individuals' ability to manage these conditions. Further research is needed to understand the specific financial burdens of disease management on patients and their households that may accelerate the risk of repeat hospitalization.

The Impact of COVID-19 in the Latinx Community.

Description The COVID-19 pandemic has intensified the existing health and social disparities that affect minority groups in the United States (US), including the Latinx community. This situation has been reflected in many aspects of health, including increased morbi-mortality and reduced adherence to medical and scientific recommendations. Limited access to health care, financial challenges, migrant status, and health literacy, or lack thereof, have all hampered the Latinx community's ability to seek aid quickly and to be tested or treated effectively for this disease. This pandemic has shown that the Latinx community's socioeconomic status correlates with greater mortality rates when compared to other ethnic groups, which runs counter to historical norms. Furthermore, morbi-mortality in Latinx people has been disproportionately greater. Beyond the systematic barriers that the Latinx community has had to face to access care during the pandemic, there were also perception barriers that increased the gap and further complicated the situation. Latinxs were more likely to be exposed due to a decreased compliance with physical distancing. When it was suggested to avoid crowds, many people started using delivery services; however, many Latinxs found the cost and requirements of reliable internet to be a barrier to using these services. Currently, COVID-19 vaccines are broadly available in the US but there has been skepticism from marginalized communities, including the Latinx population, about getting vaccinated. Integrating this population into a welcoming healthcare system, safeguarding their immigration and work status, providing more accessible vaccination locations, and promoting health equality and education would all assist to lessen the impact of this illness on the Latinx community.

Explanation of Socio-economic Inequality in Medicine Use: A Cross-sectional Analysis from Iran.

Background: Despite the favorable progress in the production of medicines, there is no significant access to these important health inputs among different socio-economic groups. Objectives: This study aimed to measure and explain socio-economic inequality in prescribed and non-prescribed medicine use in Iran. Methods: Data were obtained from a recent household survey on health services in Iran conducted in 2016. The Erreygers concentration index (ECI) was used to measure socio-economic inequality in the use of prescribed and non-prescribed medicines. In addition, Decomposition analysis was conducted to explain socio-economic inequality. Results: The ECI revealed pro-rich socio-economic inequality in prescribed medicine use (ECI = 0.067, SE = 0.010), indicating that prescribed medicine use was concentrated on the better-offs. On the other hand, this index showed pro-poor inequality in non-prescribed medicine use (ECI = -0.064, SE = 0.009). Decomposition analysis showed that economic status and place of residence were the main determinants of socio-economic inequality in prescribing medicines. These factors and the number of health care needs explained the majority of socio-economic inequality in non-prescribed medicine use. Conclusions: Despite previous positive beliefs, we found remarkable socio-economic inequality in the use of medicines in Iran. Facilitating access to pharmaceutical services for disadvantaged households and rural residents and promoting of national essential medicines list could be recommended against socio-economic inequality in the pharmaceutical market of Iran.

Inequality in access to dental services in a market-based dental care system: A population study from Norway 1975-2018.

OBJECTIVE: To examine income-related inequalities in access to dental services from 1975 to 2018. In Norway, dental care services for adults are privately financed. This may lead to income-related inequalities in access. In the early 1970s, that is, at the beginning of the study period, there were marked inequalities in access to dental services according to personal income. However, from the beginning of the 1970s, there has been a large increase in gross national income per capita in Norway as a result of the growth of the oil and gas industry. This increase in income also meant that people with a low income in 1975 had a rise in their level of income. According to the law of diminishing utility, an increase in income leads to higher consumption of dental services for people with a low level of income compared to people with a high level of income. The study hypothesis is that the inequalities in access to dental services that existed in 1975 became less over time. METHODS: Statistics Norway collected samples of cross-sectional health survey data for the following years: 1975, 1985, 1995, 2002, 2008, 2012 and 2018. For each sample, individuals 21 years and older were drawn randomly from the non-institutionalized adult population using a two-stage stratified cluster sample technique. Inequalities were measured using the concentration index. The dependent variable was the use of dental services during the last year, and the key independent variable was equivalized household income. RESULTS: The concentration index for inequalities in use of dental services according to income decreased from 0.10 (95% CI = 0.09, 0.11) in 1975 to 0.04 (95% CI = 0.03, 0.05) in 2018. The decrease was particularly large from 2002 to 2012. This was a period with a large growth in gross national income. CONCLUSION: People with a low income had a marked increase in their purchasing power from 1975 to 2018. This coincided with an increase in demand for dental care for this low-income group.

Inequality in dental care expenditure in Iranian households: analysis of income quintiles and educational levels.

BACKGROUND: Oral health is a major public health issue which affects the human life. Access to dental care is one of the important factors in maintaining oral health. This study was aimed to investigate inequality in dental care expenditure in Iranian households. METHODS: The present study is a secondary analysis of a national cross-sectional survey. The data collected from the Households Income and Expenditure Survey in 2016 and 2017. The final sample consisted of 54,354 households living in rural and urban regions of all the provinces. Inequalities in household's dental care expenditure per capita in respect to income quintiles and educational level were measured based on the Gini coefficient and concentration index. RESULTS: The results showed that about 8% of households had paid for dental care during the month before sampling. The Gini coefficient value was estimated to be 0.97 and 0.96 for dental care expenditure per capita respectively in absolute and relative measure. It indicated a significant inequality in the dental expenditure among the sample households. The values of concentration index were positive and significant for all dental care subcategories in respect to the provincial and national income quintiles as well as the educational level of the head of the household. CONCLUSIONS: Income and educational inequality in the both absolute and relative dental services expenditure of the Iranian households were in favor of higher income groups as well as higher educational level of household heads. Income inequality was higher in total dental care expenditure per capita and all its subcategories than the educational inequalities of dental expenditure. In order to reduce these inequalities, the policymakers need to pay special attention to low-income households, particularly those with low-educated heads.

COVID-19 at the Deep End: A Qualitative Interview Study of Primary Care Staff Working in the Most Deprived Areas of England during the COVID-19 Pandemic.

COVID-19 is disproportionately impacting people in low-income communities. Primary care staff in deprived areas have unique insights into the challenges posed by the pandemic. This study explores the impact of COVID-19 from the perspective of primary care practitioners in the most deprived region of England. Deep End general practices serve communities in the region's most socioeconomically disadvantaged areas. This study used semi-structured interviews followed by thematic analysis. In total, 15 participants were interviewed (11 General Practitioners (GPs), 2 social prescribing link workers and 2 nurses) with Deep End careers ranging from 3 months to 31 years. Participants were recruited via purposive and snowball sampling. Interviews were conducted using video-conferencing software. Data were analysed using thematic content analysis through a social determinants of health lens. Our results are categorised into four themes: the immediate health risks of COVID-19 on patients and practices; factors likely to exacerbate existing deprivation; the role of social prescribing during COVID-19; wider implications for remote consulting. We add qualitative understanding to existing quantitative data, showing patients from low socioeconomic backgrounds have worse outcomes from COVID-19. Deep End practitioners have valuable insights into the impact of social distancing restrictions and remote consulting on patients' health and wellbeing. Their experiences should guide future pandemic response measures and any move to "digital first" primary care to ensure that existing inequalities are not worsened.