Alternative sexualities and changing sexual cultures among Latin American men.

PIP: The research on male homosexuality and alternative sexual cultures among Latin American men is one of the richest sources of data and cross-cultural analysis on sexuality, sexual identities and sexual communities anywhere in the world. New research includes not only an ongoing concern to describe the distinct contours of different social and cultural constructions of sexual identity (a concern that has been evident in this field for 3 decades), but also a concern to describe the complex process of social, cultural, economic and political change taking place in sexual cultures throughout the region. Numerous papers now document the dilemmas confronted--and the creative solutions that have been invented--by Latino American men in response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic, and the emerging struggles for sexual rights and sexual-determination that can now be seen emerging in major urban centers throughout the region. These papers demonstrate the limitations of the dominant North American models of behavior change in response to AIDS by carefully uncovering the culturally articulated worlds of intimacy and desire that such models ignore, pointing the way toward a culturally constituted prevention practice as the only possible route to health promotion--possibly among all marginalized and vulnerable populations.^ieng

Ethnic differences in testicular structure and spermatogenic potential may predispose testes of Asian men to a heightened sensitivity to steroidal contraceptives.

Spermatogenesis in Asian men appears to be more susceptible to suppression by steroidal contraceptives administered in clinical trials than spermatogenesis in Caucasian men. The objective of this study was to determine whether ethnic differences exist in testicular structure and spermatogenic potential that might predispose Asians to a high sensitivity to steroidal contraceptives. Testes from 12 Chinese men were compared to those from 8 Hispanic men and 12 non-Hispanic Caucasian men of ages 29+/-3, 30+/-2, and 29+/-3 years, respectively. Testes were fixed by vascular perfusion with glutaraldehyde, further fixed in osmium, embedded in Epon, and evaluated by stereology using 0.5-microm sections stained with toluidine blue. Homogenates of fixed testes were evaluated for the number of Sertoli cells and the daily sperm production based on pachytene primary spermatocytes (PDSP) or spermatids with spherical nuclei (DSP). Paired parenchymal weight was less (P < 0.05) in Chinese men than in Hispanic or Caucasian men. The PDSP per gram of parenchyma was lower (P < 0.05) and the DSP per gram tended to be lower in Chinese men than in other groups. The histologic appearance, volume density, and length per man of seminiferous tubules were the same among the ethnic groups; however, the diameter of seminiferous tubules was less (P < 0.05) in Chinese than in Hispanic or Caucasian men. The PDSP per man and the DSP per man were lower (P < 0.05) in Chinese than in Hispanic or Caucasian men. The number of Sertoli cells per gram was higher (P < 0.05) in Chinese or Caucasian men than in Hispanic men, but the number of Sertoli cells per man was lower (P < 0.05) in Chinese men than in Hispanic or Caucasian men. Sertoli cell function, measured as the number of germ cells accommodated by a single Sertoli cell, was lower (P < 0.05) in Chinese men than in Caucasian men. The volume density of Leydig cell cytoplasm was greatest (P < 0.05) in Chinese men, but the number of Leydig cells was similar among the ethnic groups. Hence, smaller testes coupled with reduced Sertoli cell number and function and reduced daily sperm production could predispose Asian men to have a heightened negative response of testes to steroidal contraceptives, as compared to Caucasian men. Dampening (by exogenous androgens) of any physiological benefit to spermatogenesis that a high volume density of Leydig cell cytoplasm may bestow on the human testis (that Asian men may have evolved to require) would exacerbate ethnic differences in the spermatogenic response to hormonal contraceptives.

PIP: Multicenter studies conducted by the World Health Organization suggest that the efficacy of spermatogenesis suppression by hormonal contraception differs across racial and ethnic groups. For both androgens alone and androgens in combination with a progestin, the suppression of spermatogenesis to persistent azoospermia occurred in about 90% of Asian men compared to 60-70% of Caucasians. The present study investigated ethnic differences in testicular structure that may affect the sensitivity of the testis to gonadotropin suppression and the spermatogenic potential of the testis. Testes of 12 healthy Asian men from China who died of sudden traumatic injuries and of 8 Hispanic and 12 Caucasian men from the US who died of the same cause were obtained at autopsy and analyzed. Both paired testicular weight and paired testicular parenchymal weight were significantly lower in Chinese men than Hispanic or Caucasian men. Pachytene primary spermatocytes per gram of parenchyma and spermatids with spherical nuclei also were lower in Chinese men than in the other groups. The histologic appearance, volume density, and length per man of seminiferous tubules were the same across ethnic groups, but the volume of seminiferous tubules per man was significantly lower in Chinese men. The number of Sertoli cells per gram was significantly higher in Chinese and Caucasian men than in Hispanic men, but the number of Sertoli cells per man and Sertoli cell function were significantly lower in Chinese men than the other two groups. The volume density of Leydig cell cytoplasm was greater in Chinese men, but the number of Leydig cells was similar across groups. It is postulated that smaller testes, coupled with the reduced number and function of Sertoli cells and reduced daily sperm production, contribute to an inherently lower spermatogenic potential in Asian men, which predisposes them to a heightened negative spermatogenic response to steroidal contraceptives.

The impact of IRCA on the job opportunities and earnings of Mexican-American and Hispanic-American workers.

PIP: The 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) introduced substantial civil and/or criminal penalties to employers who hire illegal workers, with the main goal of reducing the demand for undocumented labor. However, in the interest of addressing certain concerns about the law, the Immigration Act of 1990 was passed to require various branches of the federal government to intensify efforts to disseminate the antidiscrimination provisions of IRCA. The authors studied the earnings gap between Mexican, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic white male workers which resulted from changes in both the wage structure and immigration laws of the 1980s. It appears that Mexican and Hispanic workers were adversely affected by the changes. The analysis of data from the 1980 and 1990 1% Public Use Microdata Samples determined that Mexican and Hispanic labor were adversely affected by the increase in the returns to skills during the 1980s given their relatively lower levels of educational attainment and labor market experience. At-risk workers increased their work effort and level of productivity to reduce the effects of legislation-induced employment losses. Data were also used from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission for the period 1983-92.^ieng

Factors related to condom use with casual partners among urban African-American and Hispanic males.

Constructs from the Health Belief Model and the Theory of Reasoned Action were tested for their relationship to condom use with casual partners in a probability sample of urban African-American and Hispanic males aged 15-24. The results indicate the importance of 1) promoting a sense of male responsibility regarding condom use; 2) promoting the belief that condoms should be used with all partners; 3) developing skills for condom use and partner communication; and 4) increasing perceived susceptibility to HIV infection in design of intervention programs.

PIP: The authors report their findings from an examination of factors related to condom use with casual female partners among a probability sample of urban African-American and Hispanic males aged 15-24 years from low-income areas of Detroit. 1435 interviews were completed during February-July 1991, resulting in an overall response rate of 85%. 137 of the 590 male respondents who reported having had sexual intercourse with women during the past year reported casual partners. The men with casual partners were similar in age and educational level to other males, although a larger proportion of males with casual partners were not married and were Hispanic. Moreover, men with casual partners had a larger mean number of partners ever and during the past year. Based upon the use of constructs from the Health Belief Model and the Theory of Reasoned Action, the authors stress the importance of promoting a sense of male responsibility regarding condom use, promoting the belief that condoms should be used with all partners, developing skills for condom use and partner communication, and increasing perceived susceptibility to HIV infection when designing intervention programs.

Exploring norms and beliefs related to AIDS prevention among California Hispanic men.

A focus-group study gathered qualitative information from Hispanic males in California regarding ethnic factors that might enhance or interfere with AIDS prevention efforts. A predominantly working-class convenience sample of 75 men aged 18-40 participated in seven groups of 10-12 participants each. Three groups were composed of single men, three of married men and one was composed of homosexual and bisexual men. Four groups included only participants born outside the United States; and Spanish was the preferred language in five of the groups. Evaluation of the discussions indicates that while AIDS awareness is high among this population, condom use is sporadic. Few participants knew that someone infected with the human immunodeficiency virus could appear healthy; most believed they could easily determine if a woman is risky by her appearance or social standing. Although many participants thought HIV could be transmitted through casual contact, the homosexual and bisexual men were more likely to acknowledge that they were at some risk of infection; most of the heterosexual men did not perceive themselves as being at risk, even those who engaged in sex with prostitutes or women they met at bars. The participants had ambivalent attitudes toward women who suggested condom use and were often reluctant to initiate condom use themselves. Religion did not seem to play a major role in the men's attitudes about AIDS, sexuality and condom use.

Homosexual men who engage in high-risk sexual behavior. A multicenter comparison.

To describe homosexual men who continue to engage in unprotected oral and anal sex, 601 men who attended three urban STD clinics and who had engaged in these behaviors with a male partner in the previous 4 months were interviewed regarding their sexual and drug-use behaviors. Although approximately one fourth of participants had engaged in 1 to 2 episodes of unprotected anal sex, more than 20% reported engaging in greater than 23 episodes. Higher frequency of anal sex was associated with lower condom use rates. Although 50% had primary relationships, less than 22% had sex with just one partner, and less than 10% were in relationships concordant for HIV-antibody status. Multiple regression analyses showed that number of drugs used each month, sex in a steady relationship, and Hispanic ethnicity were the most consistent predictors of risk behavior across sites. Careful evaluation of the diverse nature and characteristics of these men is essential to target risk-reduction programs for this population.

Levels of sexual activity among adolescent males in the United States.

Although three-fifths of adolescent males aged 15-19 say they have had sexual intercourse, analyses of data from the 1988 National Survey of Adolescent Males indicate that their level of sexual activity is relatively moderate. The data show that among sexually experienced young men the mean number of partners in the last 12 months is 1.9, and the mean frequency of intercourse in the last four weeks is 2.7 times. Black males have had more partners than white or Hispanic males; however, after the number of years since first intercourse are controlled for, these differences disappear. On average, sexually experienced youth spent six out of the last 12 months with no sexual partner, and only 21 percent of sexually active males had more than one partner in any month in the last year. Comparisons with 1979 data suggest that proportionately more adolescents were sexually experienced in 1988, but fewer non-black males had first intercourse before their 15th birthday. The number of partners since first intercourse and in the past four weeks appears to have decreased, as has the frequency of intercourse in the last four weeks.

PIP: Researchers used data on 1880 never married males aged 15-19 years living in the United States collected during the 1988 National Survey of Adolescent Males (NSAM) to gauge heterosexual activity by the number of partners and the frequency of coitus and, when possible, to compare these data with data collected during the 1979 National Survey of Young Men. In 1988, 60% had sexual intercourse at least once, but most of them did not have any partners for 5.87 months and only 21% had 1 relationship at the same time during the last 12 months. 19.8% of young Black males said they had had sexual intercourse by age 13 compared to 2.9 of White males and 3.9 of Hispanic males (p.001). Indeed the cumulative proportion of Black teenagers who had 1st intercourse continued to be significantly greater than those of White and Hispanic teenagers (p.001 for 13-18 years; p.05 for 19 years). Overall male adolescents had an average of 5.11 lifetime sexual partners. The 17-19 year olds in 1988 (6) had significantly fewer lifetime partners than those in 1979 (7.34; p.001). Further, the number fell between 1979-1988 in each age group, but the decrease was only significant for 19 year olds (p.05). The number of partners actually rose for Blacks (9.34-9.99), but fell greatly for Nonblacks (6.87-5.02; p.01). In 1988, Blacks had a mean of 8.3 partners compared to 4.3 for Whites and 5.2 for Hispanics (p.001). The mean number of sexual partners in the last year was significantly greater for Blacks (2.37) than Whites (1.85) and Hispanics (1.57; p.001). The number of partners in the last 4 weeks fell significantly between 1979-1988 (.96 vs. .72; p.05). This decline was essentially due to the substantial drop in partners for Blacks (1.32 vs. .86; p.01). These results indicated that overall the rate of sexual activity is declining and that serial monogamy is the norm for male teenagers who have had 1 partner in the last year.

Sources of sexual information and sexual attitudes and behaviors of Anglo and Hispanic adolescent males.

A survey of Anglo and Hispanic adolescent males' sources of sexual information and their attitudes and practices was conducted. A comparison of attitudes and behaviors revealed little difference by ethnicity; however, a more detailed analysis of sources of information resulted in some interesting findings. The relationship between completing a sex education class and condom use was statistically significant in a positive direction. In addition, this relationship was much stronger for Hispanic youth. The important implications of this finding are discussed.

PIP: This exploratory study examined the self-reported sexual attitudes and behavior of 28 Anglo and 69 Hispanic adolescent males from urban and rural areas of Colorado in 1987. 64.3% of the Anglos and 60.3% of the Hispanics were from urban areas. The mean age was 15.6 years for Anglos and 16.1 years for Hispanics. The education level was lower for Anglos. 29.6% of Anglos and 31.1% of Hispanics lived in 1-parent households. The results showed that sexual knowledge was learned from a variety of sources in both groups, with no statistical difference between groups. Of interest, however,is that sex education was ranked 1st by Anglos and 3rd by Hispanics. Statistical differences were found in the desire to postpone sex until marriage, i.e., 39.3% of Anglos vs. 20.9% of Hispanics desired postponement. There were no differences in actual engagement in sexual intercourse, i.e., 64.3% of Anglos and 70.8% of Hispanics with mean ages of 13.2 years and 13.6 years, respectively. Condom use was also similar with 38.9% of Anglos and 31.8% of Hispanics indicating use of condoms sometimes. 27.8% of Anglos and 20.5% of Hispanics reported no use ever. The most important finding was the effect of sex education classes. 53.6% reported sex education classes as a source of knowledge (60.7% of Anglos and 50.7% of Hispanics). An additional analysis showed that there was a very strong relationship between learning about sexuality in a sex education class and reports of condom use among those sexually active. 71.4% of those reporting condom use had learned about sexuality through a sex education class, while only 21.45 of those never having used a condom had attended a sex education class. It was also statistically significant that those who had learned about sexuality from sex education classes would choose sex education classes as a source of further information, both for Anglos and Hispanics. What is not answered is whether sex education was result of choice or access, i.e., considered important in light of the association between condom use and sex education. Timing of sex education is also important, and may explain the lack of association between age at 1st intercourse and sex classes. The study points out the cultural value of Hispanic "machismo" which also means accepting responsibility for contraception and providing for one's family, but in traditional households youth may not ask about sexuality. This study addresses cultural expectations, the nature of information desired by youth, and the multiple sources influencing knowledge and attitudes.