Drug dependence as a split object: Trajectories of neuroscientification and behavioralization at the Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry.

Today, drug dependence is often understood as a "brain disease" and as an indication for behavioral therapy. In this article, I trace the historical development of the notions of drug dependence as a neuronal and behavioral problem in the local research context of the Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry in Munich, Germany. Focusing on the period from the 1950s to the 1980s, I argue that the neuroscientific and behaviorist understanding of "dependence" had two different trajectories that were yoked together under the same institution of self-proclaimed basic research: (a) the neuroscientific notion derived from an older toxicological approach to drug effects that was then accompanied by biochemical methods from the 1950s onwards, and neurochemical approaches from the 1960s and 1970s; and (b) the behaviorist notion had predecessors in psychotherapeutic approaches to addiction that emerged in the 1950s and took a psychodynamic orientation at the Institute. When the Institute positioned itself as a basic research establishment and developed a unified structure during the 1960s, these psychodynamic approaches were excluded for being "too applied." Soon afterward, behaviorist psychotherapeutic approaches to drug dependence emerged in the 1970s, emphasizing their foundation in basic research. Even though neuroscientific and behaviorist notions had some overlaps through the use of animal experimentation and by referring to basic research, researchers using the two approaches remained separate in their respective units during the time period under analysis. When conceptualizing the local scientific occupation with "drug dependence," I apply here the history of science concept of a "split object." Like the "boundary object," the split object is plastic enough to adapt to local conditions and robust enough to maintain its genuine identity. Compared with the boundary object, however, the split object does not invite scientific collaboration. It does, nonetheless, enable epistemic coexistence under a common institutional goal.

Role of serendipity in the discovery of classical antidepressant drugs: Applying operational criteria and patterns of discovery.

The role played by serendipity in the origin of modern psychopharmacology has proven to be controversial in scientific literature. In its original meaning (Walpole), serendipity refers to discoveries made through a combination of accidents and sagacity. We have implemented an operational definition of serendipity based on finding something unexpected or unintended, regardless of the systematic process that led to the accidental observation, and we have established four different patterns of serendipitous attributability. In this paper, we have analyzed the role of serendipity in the discovery and development of classical antidepressant drugs, tricyclic antidepressants and monoamine oxidase inhibitors as well as heterocyclic, "atypical" or "second generation" antidepressants. The discovery of the antidepressant properties of imipramine and iproniazid, the prototypes of tricyclic antidepressants and monoamine oxidase inhibitors, respectively, fits the mixed type II pattern; initial serendipitous discoveries (imipramine was an antipsychotic and iproniazid was an anti-tuberculosis agent) led secondarily to non-serendipitous discoveries. But the other components of these two families of drugs were developed specifically as antidepressants, modifying the chemical structure of the series leaders, thereby allowing all of them to be included in the type IV pattern, characterized by the complete absence of serendipity. Among the heterocyclic drugs, mianserin (originally developed as an antihistamine) also falls into the type II pattern.

Lorente de Nó: From Neuroanatomy to Neurophysiology.

Rafael Lorente de Nó (1902-1990) was the youngest and last of Santiago Ramón y Cajal's students. With Fernando de Castro, Lorente de Nó helped to transition the focus of Ramón y Cajal's School from neuroanatomy to neurophysiology. His main contributions to neuroscience concerned the cytoarchitecture of the cerebral isocortex and hippocampus, neural networks, central vestibular system anatomy, vestibulo-ocular reflex physiology, cochlear nuclei anatomy, and synaptic transmission mechanisms. This article pays tribute to the memory of Lorente de Nó by providing a comprehensive review of the life and work of this giant of neuroscience. Anat Rec, 303:1221-1231, 2020. © 2019 American Association for Anatomy.

Brain and behavior: on the perspective of Miguel Covian and César Timo-Iaria / Cérebro e comportamento: a perspectiva de Miguel Covian e César Timo-Iaria / Cerebro y comportamiento: la perspectiva de Miguel Covian y César Timo-Iaria

Historical studies of neuroscience in Brazil have focused on many aspects, including the relationship between brain and behavior. We present some notes on the concept of behavior, based on documents related to two Brazilian scientists identified as behavioral neuroscientists: Miguel Rolando Covian (1913-1992) and César Timo-Iaria (1925-2005). These neuroscientists used the concept of behavior in their debates about the connections between the nervous system and the environment. This use was influenced by physiological - especially neurophysiological - and experimental psychological studies. Describing and analyzing such documents and their authors, helps us to understand aspects of the history of neurosciences in Brazil during a period in which neuroscience was spreading rapidly in different countries.

Pesquisas em história das neurociências no Brasil têm focado diferentes aspectos, incluindo a relação entre cérebro e comportamento. Apresentamos notas sobre o conceito de comportamento, baseado em documentos de dois cientistas brasileiros identificados como neurocientistas comportamentais: Miguel Rolando Covian (1913-1992) e César Timo-Iaria (1925-2005). Esses neurocientistas utilizaram o conceito de comportamento em seus trabalhos sobre as conexões entre o sistema nervoso e o ambiente. Tal uso tinha influências da fisiologia - especialmente da neurofisiologia - e de estudos em Psicologia Experimental. A descrição de tais documentos e de seus autores nos auxiliam a compreender aspectos da história das neurociências no Brasil em um momento em que as neurociências se espalhavam fortemente ao redor do mundo.

Las investigaciones en la historia de las neurociencias en Brasil se han centrado en diferentes aspectos, incluida la relación entre cerebro y comportamiento. Nosotros presentamos apuntes sobre el concepto de comportamiento, de conformidad con documentos de dos cientistas brasileños identificados como neurocientistas comportamentales: Miguel Rolando Covian (1913-1992) y César Timo-Iaria (1925-2005). Eses neurocientistas utilizaron el concepto de comportamiento en sus trabajos sobre las conexiones entre el sistema nervioso y el ambiente. Dicho uso tenía influencias de la fisiología - especialmente de la neurofisiología - y de estudios en Psicología Experimental. Las descripciones de tales documentos y de sus autores nos ayudan a comprender aspectos de la historia de las neurociencias en Brasil en un momento en que las neurociencias se extendían fuertemente alrededor del mundo.

Claude Bernard: bicentenary of birth and his main contributions to neurology / Claude Bernard: bicentenário do nascimento e suas principais contribuições à neurologia

Claude Bernard (1813-1878) followed two main research paths: the chemical and physiological study of digestion and liver function, along with experimental section of nerves and studies on sympathetic nerves. Curare studies were, for example, of longstanding interest. His profound mental creativity and hand skillfulness, besides methodology quality, directed his experiments and findings, mainly at the Collège de France. His broader and epistemological concerns were carried out at the Sorbonne and later at the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle. His insight gave clues to define the “ milieu intérieur”, later known as “homeostasis”, and grasp the brain complexity. Bernard followed and surpassed his master François Magendie who also fought against dogmas and laid the foundations of experimental medicine, and its main heinous tool – vivisection. Bernard created the methodological bases of experimental medicine, and collected honors as a renowned researcher.

Em suas pesquisas, Claude Bernard (1813-1878) seguiu dois caminhos principais: o estudo fisiológico e químico da digestão e da função hepática; a seção experimental de nervos e os estudos sobre nervos simpáticos. Estudos sobre curare, por exemplo, foram de interesse duradouro. Suas profundas criatividade mental e habilidade manual, além da qualidade metodológica, conduziram às suas experiências e descobertas, principalmente no Collège de France. Seus interesses sobre temas epistemológicos mais amplos foram conduzidos na Sorbonne e, posteriormente, no Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle. Seu discernimento deu subsídios para definir o “ milieu intérieur ”, mais tarde conhecido como “homeostase”, e para ajudar a compreender a complexidade do cérebro. Bernard seguiu e superou seu mestre François Magendie. Este também lutou contra dogmas e lançou os fundamentos da medicina experimental, utilizando sua principal ferramenta hedionda – a vivissecção. Bernard ampliou estes estudos e criou as bases metodológicas da medicina experimental, tendo colecionado honrarias como renomado pesquisador.

The first Brazilian neuropsychiatrist, José Martins da Cruz Jobim, tuberculous meningitis and mental disease / O primeiro neuropsiquiatra brasileiro, José Martins da Cruz Jobim, meningite tuberculosa e doença mental

The intersection between infectious diseases, poverty and mental disease was an important subject to the Brazilian Neuropsychiatry in the early 19th century. José Martins da Cruz Jobim (1802–1878) was engaged in a hygienist approach based on symptomatological and anatomopathological studies. He wrote “Insânia loquaz” (Loquacious insanity), 1831, the first written text about mental illness in Brazil, founded on clinical and pathological data, compatible with tuberculous meningitis. Thus, Jobim deserves the title of the first neuropsychiatrist in Brazil. The authors critically studied the clinical history and the autopsy findings of his cases, and the main health policies at the time.

A intersecção entre as doenças infecciosas, a pobreza e a doença mental foi um assunto importante para a Neuropsiquiatria brasileira no início do século 19. José Martins da Cruz Jobim (1802–1878) estava engajado em uma abordagem higienista baseada em estudos sintomatológicos e anatomopatológicos. Escreveu “Insânia loquaz”, 1831, o primeiro texto escrito sobre doença mental no Brasil, baseado em dados clínicos e patológicos compatíveis com meningite tuberculosa. Assim, Jobim merece o título de primeiro neuropsiquiatra no Brasil. Os autores estudaram criticamente a história clínica e os resultados da autópsia dos seus casos, bem como as principais políticas de saúde da ocasião.

The Brazilian Neurology centenary (1912-2012) and the common origin of the fields of Neurology and Psychiatry / O centenário da Neurologia brasileira (1912-2012) e a origem comum das áreas de Neurologia e Psiquiatria

It is reported the Brazilian Neurology birth (1912), that has as the hallmark its first Neurology Cathedra of Rio de Janeiro, and the links between Neurology and Psychiatry, besides the main medical protagonists at that time in Rio de Janeiro: João Carlos Teixeira Brandão (1854-1921), first professor of the cathedra of Clinical Psychiatry and Nervous Diseases (1883-1921); Juliano Moreira (1873-1933), the founder of the Brazilian scientific Psychiatry and director of the Hospício Nacional de Alienados (National Hospice for the Insane) (1903-1930); Antônio Austregésilo Rodrigues de Lima (1876-1960), first professor of the cathedra of Neurology, considered the father of the Brazilian Neurology. Aloysio de Castro (1881-1959) was a great Brazilian neurosemiologist at that time. Austregésilo practiced both disciplines, Neurology and Psychiatry, and like Jean-Martin-Charcot, he was very interested in a typically psychiatric disorder, the hysteria. It is also considered in this paper the first Brazilian authors of Neurology and/or Psychiatric texts and the places where Neurology was initially developed by the main founders: Hospício Nacional de Alienados, Santa Casa de Misericórdia do Rio de Janeiro and Policlínica Geral do Rio de Janeiro.

É relatado o nascimento da Neurologia brasileira (1912), que tem como marco principal a primeira Cátedra de Neurologia do Rio de Janeiro, bem como as ligações entre Neurologia e Psiquiatria, além dos principais protagonistas médicos da época naquela cidade: João Carlos Teixeira Brandão (1854-1921), primeiro professor da cátedra da Clínica psiquiátrica e de moléstias nervosas (1883-1921); Juliano Moreira (1873-1933), fundador da Psiquiatria científica brasileira e diretor do Hospício Nacional dos Alienados (1903-1930); Antônio Austregésilo Rodrigues de Lima (1876-1960), primeiro catedrático de Neurologia, considerado o pai da Neurologia brasileira. Aloysio de Castro (1881-1959) foi um grande neurosemiologista brasileiro da época. Austregésilo praticava tanto a Neurologia quanto a Psiquiatria e, como Jean Martin-Charcot, estava muito interessado em um típico transtorno psiquiátrico, a histeria. Consideram-se também os primeiros autores brasileiros de textos de Neurologia e/ou Psiquiatria e os locais onde a Neurologia foi inicialmente desenvolvida pelos fundadores principais: Hospício Nacional dos Alienados, Santa Casa de Misericórdia do Rio de Janeiro e Policlínica Geral do Rio de Janeiro.

National hospice for the insane and the Brazilian Neurology in the beginning of the 20th century / Hospício nacional de alienados e a Neurologia brasileira no início do século 20

The modern Brazilian Neurology was born in the campus of Praia Vermelha, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ). The former National Hospice for the Insane (NHI) as well as some of its facilities were fundamental for the teaching about diseases of the nervous system to the students of the UFRJ's Medical School, caring for patients with neurosyphilis and epilepsy, as well as children with neurological impairment. We highlight the role of Juliano Moreira, director of the NHI (1903-1930), and his team, including Antonio Austregésilo Rodrigues Lima, the "father" of the Brazilian Neurology, in the construction of the modern Brazilian Psychiatry and Neurology.

Os primórdios da neurologia moderna brasileira estão ligados ao campus da Praia Vermelha da Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro. O ex-Hospício Nacional de Alienados (HNA), bem como algumas de suas instalações foram fundamentais para o ensino sobre doenças do sistema nervoso aos alunos da Faculdade de Medicina do Rio de Janeiro; cuidado de pacientes com neurossífilis e epilepsia, e de crianças com comprometimento neurológico. Destacamos o papel de Juliano Moreira, diretor do HNA (1903-1930), e sua equipe, incluindo Antonio Austregésilo Rodrigues Lima, o "pai" da neurologia brasileira, na construção das modernas Psiquiatria e Neurologia brasileiras.