[Active euthanasia in Colombia and assisted suicide in California]. / Aktív eutanázia Kolumbiában és asszisztált öngyilkosság Kaliforniában.

The institution of active euthanasia has been legal in Colombia since 2015. In California, the regulation on physician-assisted suicide will come into effect on January 1, 2016. The legal institution of active euthanasia is not accepted under the law of the United States of America, however, physician-assisted suicide is accepted in an increasing number of member states. The related regulation in Oregon is imitated in other member states. In South America, Colombia is not the first country to legalize active euthanasia: active euthanasia has been legal in Uruguay since 1932. The North American legal tradition markedly differs from the South American one and both are incompatible with the Central European rule of law. In Hungary and in most European Union countries, solely the passive form of euthanasia is legal. In the Benelux countries, the active form of euthanasia is legal because the supranational law of the European Union does not prohibit it. Notwithstanding, European Union law does not prescribe legalization of either the active form of euthanasia, or the physician-assisted suicide.

[The 1988 general census in light of the expected recommendations of the CMEA Permanent Statistical Commission]. / Narodowy Spis Powszechny 1988 w swietle przewidywanych zalecen Stalej Komisji Statystycznej RWPG.

PIP: The author describes a set of principles concerning census procedures agreed to by the countries of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance. These include an agreement to conduct a decennial census at the end of each decade and close to the beginning of a year, and an agreed number of minimum and optimum components. Dates of future censuses include: Poland, 1988; USSR, 1989; Mongolia, 1989; Viet Nam, 1989; Romania, 1990; Hungary, 1990; Cuba, 1990; Czechoslovakia, 1990; German Democratic Republic, 1991; Yugoslavia, 1991; and Bulgaria, 2000.^ieng

Singapore in international comparisons of birthweight and perinatal mortality.

The position of Singapore as regards birthweight distribution and perinatal mortality has been compared with six countries in the 1973 WHO study namely, Austria, Cuba, Hungary, Japan, New Zealand and Sweden. Birthweight distribution and perinatal mortality reflect both the social and health conditions of a population and the standards of obstetric and paediatric care, and seeing where a country ranks in the international comparison of them may play a role in the formulation of health policy for that country. Singapore was well placed for the proportion of very low birthweight babies (less than 1,500 grams), ranking 2nd for both live births (0.5%) and total births (0.7%). It was however not so well placed for proportion of low birthweight babies (less than 2,500 grams), ranking 5th for both live births (8.8%) and total births (9.2%). With regard to perinatal mortality Singapore at 20.0 per 1,000 total births ranked 4th and this improved to 3rd after standardizing for birthweight and in fact was little different from Hungary (1st) and Sweden (2nd). Given that standardization for birthweight largely removes the effect of "socioeconomic and demographic factors" so that remaining differences to a large extent reflect medical care, this indicates a relatively high standard of perinatal care in Singapore. The problems of interpretation, the implications of the findings and suggestions for improving birth statistics in Singapore are discussed.

PIP: The situation in Singapore with regard to birthweight disbribution and perinatal mortality has been compared with 6 other countries in the 1973 WHO study. Those countries are: Austria, Cuba, Hungary, Japan, New Zealand, and Sweden. Birthweight distribution and perinatal mortality reflect both the social and health conditions of a population and the standards of obstetric and pediatric care. By evaluating where a country ranks in an international comparison, it is then possible for that country to formulate an appropriate health policy. Singapore ranked well in the proportion of very low birthweight babies (less than 1500 grams), ranked 2nd for livebirths (0.5%) and total births (0.7%), but did not rank as well in proportion of low birthweight babies (less than 2500 grams). Furthermore, Singapore ranked 5th for both live births (8.8%) and total births (9.2%). In the category of perinatal mortality, Singapore, with a rate of 20.0/1000 total births, ranked 4th and then moved into 3rd place after standardizing for birthweight. There was in fact little difference between Singapore and the 1st ranked (Hungary) and 2nd place (Sweden) countries. Given that standardization for birthweight removes for the most part the socioeconomic and demographic factors and leaves those factors reflecting medical care, this indicates a relatively high standard of perinatal care in Singapore. This article also examines problems of interpretation, the implications of the findings, and suggestions for improving birth statistics in Singapore.

[An overall index as a measure of quality in a census or survey]. / Un indice global como medida de la calidad en un censo o encuesta

PIP: A method for evaluating the quality of census or survey data is outlined. The method is based on a model developed in 1961 by Hansen, Hurvitz, and Bershad. The use of the present model for comparisons of data quality among countries is described and evaluated. Applications to data from Cuba, Spain, Hungary, and the United States are included. (summary in ENG, RUS)^ieng

A reassessment of world population trends.

This reassessment is limited to observations concerning trends in mortality and fertility and concerning longrun prospects for population growth. Recorded changes in mortality are compared with 3 projections made many years ago. Projections of European mortality made in 1941-42 understated by a wide margin the actual increase in expectation of life because of unforeseen technological changes in the prevention and cure of fatal disease. On the other hand, a projection made in 1955 for India, foreseeing a rapid rise in the 1950s and slower progress later on because of the exhaustion of the easier gains, appears to have been accurate and also to depict the prospects in other populations of relatively high mortality and low income. A different projection of life expectancy in Mexico was also quite close to actual changes in Mexican mortality; it was based on a universal curve constructed to represent how life expectancy rises, increasing ever more slowly as it approaches an upper limit. This curve (1 for each sex), constructed for projection of Mexican mortality, is employed as a standard of comparison for mortality changes in many countries. A number have followed the standard for females very closely for more than 3 decades; in developed countries, male life expectancy has generally fallen short of the standard. The almost universal low fertility in developed countries contrasts with the great diversity of levels and trends of fertility in developing countries, some of which retain undiminished high fertility and others of which have recently attained rates of childbearing as low as in the developed areas. Instances of surprisingly little change and surprisingly rapid change in fertility are described. In the future, growth of populations of developed countries will probably be slight; the future rate of increase in the developing areas depends on the unpredictable timing and pace of childbearing reduction in populations where fertility remains high. In the long run, world population growth may resume its typical pattern of moderate growth interrupted by catastrophic setbacks.

[Changes in fertility in the last decade]. / Evolucion de la fecundidad en el ultimo decenio.

PIP: The rapid decrease in fertility levels in Cuba over the past decade constitutes an interesting problem for researchers. Only a few highly industrialized countries, the U.S., Hungary, New Zealand, Oceania and Japan, have observed a situation somewhat similar to that in Cuba. This article analyzes the change in fertility expressed in the reversal of various indicators: the estimated birth rate, the general fertility rate by age, summary of the reduction in the total birth rate. It is possible to observe a reduction in all levels which demonstrates a change in reproductive behavior among Cuban couples. In addition, the distribution of age groups has been modified, increasing the elderly population. This pattern has been repeated more or less on an international scale.^ieng

WHO collaborative study on breast feeding.

WHO, concerned with the declining breast feeding rate in developing countries, has organized investigations in nine different countries of different aspects of breast feeding and breast milk with the ultimate aim of formulating programmes of intervention. The basic epidemiological study on 24000 mother/child pairs is just completed and some preliminary data are reported on the pattern of breast feeding in the three studied socio-economic groups--urban elite, urban poor and traditional rural--which differ significantly in their breast feeding rate as well as in the pattern of return of menstruation in breast-feeding and non-breast-feeding mothers.

PIP: Concerned with the declining breast-feeding rate in developing countries, WHO has organized investigations in 9 different countries of different aspects of breast-feeding and breast milk with the ultimate aim of formulating programs of intervention. The basic study was begun in 1975 and concentrated on the epidemiology of breast-feeding among 3 different socioeconomic groups, the urban elite, urban poor, and traditional rural. 9 countries, Chile, Guatemala, the Philippines, India, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Zaire, Sweden, and Hungary, participated in the study, and altogether almost 24,000 mother/child pairs were involved. Data from all 9 countries have now been compiled, and are being centrally analyzed. Results of a few of the important preliminary findings are reported here. As far as duration of breast-feeding is concerned, significant differences are appearing between the 3 different socioeconomic groups in each country. In most settings, it is apparent that breast-feeding declines most rapidly among the urban elite group and is most prolonged in the rural traditional populations. The preliminary data corroborate the long-held position that postpartum amenorrhea is more prolonged in breast-feeding than in non-breast-feeding mothers. The breast-feeding development in Sweden is contrasted with that in Guatemala, and marked differences are noted in breast-feeding patterns. It was felt that once the various factors influencing breast-feeding patterns are better understood, the specific action and intervention program suitable to each country and setting could be initiated to improve infant nutrition. The action program thus developed would be more effective and efficient since it would be addressed specifically to the factors influencing breast-feeding and infant feeding in a given area.

Boys or girls? Parents' preferences and sex control.

PIP: Recent evidence from the U.S. and from other selected countries is examined on parent sex preferences for their children and how strongly these are held. This involves the significance of these preferences, the social and economic conditions that foster different types of preferences, and how different individuals and societies deal with them. The traditional preference for boys appears to remain nearly universal, which runs contrary to the ideal of "every child a wanted child," and also presents an obstacle to desired declines in fertility in developing countries where sons are still perceived as needed for economic and emotional security. This tendency has been turned around in Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong, and the U.S., where small families are now the ideal. 3 basic approaches to the scientific selection of sex-specific sperm for preselection, the timing of sexual intercourse, the separation of male- and female-bearing sperm followed by artificial insemination, and selective abortion after fetal sex determination indicate that an effective and practical method of sex control is still further off than predicted.^ieng

A hypothetical study of populations under constant mortality and fertility.

PIP: 28 countries with different characteristics have been selected in order to observe the amount of time it takes for these different countries to reach stable age distributions. The individual populations by sex and age were projected for 150 years in 5-year intervals with the present constant mortality and fertility schedules by component method. Observations have been made by considering the following characteristics of population when it has acquired stability: age distribution; the rate of growth, birthrate, and mortality rate; the population change; the intrinsic rate of growth, birthrate and mortality rate; and approximate time taken to stabilize the population. The initial age distribution has a significant part in the amount of time it takes for a population to acquire stability, and its intrinsic rate of growth is mostly dependent upon the existing age distribution of that population. The time taken for a country's population to become stable depends upon the age distribution, fertility and mortality schedules at the beginning. It has been observed that countries having a higher intrinsic rate of growth take comparatively less time in acquiring stability than the countries having a lower intrinsic rate of growth. The mortality and fertility schedules of a country is another important phenomenon. The populations of the different countries at the point of stability were growing according to their rates of growth. No specific trend of population growth could be found among the groups of countries. Time taken for stabilizing the population is completely based upon age distributions, fertility and mortality schedules a particular country was having at the beginning. The range of time taken for different countries to acquire stability generally ranged from 100 to 135 years. Among the different countries the relationship for the time it takes to acquire stability has not been established. This is a hypothetical approach in order to obtain some idea as to how a population with different characteristics acts in the long run when some of its characteristics are assumed to be constant.^ieng

World population projections: alternative paths to zero growth.

PIP: This article discusses Frejka's analysis of alternative paths to zero population growth. A net reproduction rate (NRR) of 1 is a vital step in reaching zero growth, but because of age distribution variances, it does not necessarily represent zero growth. The projections described here include: 1)the immediate path of achieving NRR of 1 in 1970-1975: 2)rapid path of an NRR of 1 in 2000-2005: and 3)slow path of NRR of 1 in 2040-2045. The population of the world in the year 2000 would be respectively: 5,700,000,000; 6,000000,000; and 7,000,000,000. Zero growth would be reached in 2000 for the immediate path; in 2100 with a population of 8,000,000,000 in the rapid path; and in 2045 with a population of 15,000,000,000. Individual projections are also given for several countries on different continents.^ieng