The effect of technological progress and income per capita on carbon dioxide emission: the moderating role of economic freedom.

Climate change in context of environmental issues is pushing most of the countries to set the goals in order to achieve carbon neutrality and sustainable development. The recognition of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) thirteen (13) is aided by the objective of this study which is to take an urgent action to combat climate change. In this context, this study investigates the effect of technological progress, income, and foreign direct investment on carbon dioxide emission by taking into consideration the moderating effect of economic freedom in 165 global countries from 2000 to 2020. The study employed ordinary least squares (OLS), fixed effects (FE), and two-step system generalized method of moments for analysis. The findings reveal that economic freedom, income per capita, foreign direct investment, and industry increase carbon dioxide emission while technological progress reduces emission in global countries. Surprisingly, economic freedom indirectly increases the level of carbon emissions by technological progress; however, economic freedom indirectly decreases the level of carbon emissions by income per capita. In this regard, this study favors clean eco-friendly technologies and seeks methods for development without harming the environment. Furthermore, the findings of this study have considerable policy suggestions for the sample countries.

Does higher income lead to more renewable energy consumption? Evidence from emerging-Asian countries.

While some previous studies find a positive relationship between income or economic output and the share of renewables in energy consumption, others find a negative relationship. To bridge these seemingly contradictory findings, we test a non-linear relationship between income and the share of renewable energy sources in total energy consumption (REC%) in eight emerging-Asian countries. Using the feasible generalized least squares method and controlling for financial development and capital formation (two variables found in the literature to affect the use of renewable energy), we find a U-shaped relationship between income and the share of renewables in total energy consumption. In other words, at lower income levels, as income (Gross Domestic Product per capita) increases, REC% decreases. Once the income reaches a certain level, the relationship becomes positive. Financial development positively affects REC%. The implications and policy recommendations are presented in light of these findings.

Update of a Simple Model to Calculate the Annual Global Productivity Loss Due to Blindness and Moderate and Severe Vision Impairment.

PURPOSE: To develop a simple but more precise model to calculate potential annual productivity losses due to blindness and moderate and severe vision impairment (MSVI) at the national, regional, and global level. METHODS: Productivity loss was defined as the loss of minimum wage/Gross National Income per capita (GNI) incurred by people aged 50-64 years with blindness or MSVI, who were not able to work or worked with reduced earnings in 2020. We developed a global list of minimum wage data from on-line sources. All other model data were sourced from international, standardised, and open-access databases. For blindness, the total productivity loss (not working) incurred by 64%-90% of the affected population was summed up with partial productivity loss, defined as 10%-36% of the affected population earning one-third of that of the sighted population. For MSVI, the total productivity loss for 30%-55% of the affected population was summed with the partial productivity loss, defined as 45%-70% of the affected population having 35% reduced earnings. The costs of blindness and MSVI were summed to obtain the cost of combined vision loss. RESULTS: The global cost of vision loss based on minimum wage was US$160-US$216.32 billion for 2020. The global cost of vision loss using GNI was US$449.36-US$584.66 billion. CONCLUSIONS: A parsimonious model that considers minimum wage and GNI potentially lost due to blindness and MSVI can be used for eye care programming planning and advocacy at the national, regional, and global level.

Prevalence, progress, and subgroup disparities in pharmacological antidepressant treatment of those who screen positive for depressive symptoms: A repetitive cross-sectional study in 19 European countries.

Background: The European Mental Health Action Plan (EMHAP) 2013-2020 promoted community-based mental health services. One potential success indicator is the provision of antidepressant medication to those needing it. Methods: Public data from two surveys (Health Survey for England, UK; Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe) covered 19 European countries across EMHAP phases one (2011-2015) and two (2015-2018). People screening positive for depressive symptoms by self-report were included. The primary outcome was antidepressant use: using country-specific weighted regression models, we estimated temporal trends and subgroup disparities in antidepressant receipt, with secondary analysis by country-level measures including healthcare expenditure. Findings: Across 37,250 participants, after controlling for age, sex, wealth, and physical disability, antidepressant use (amongst those screening positive) increased significantly in 14/19 countries, with the smallest increase being in Slovenia (adjusted OR[AOR] for trend=1.68[1.20-2.36]) and the highest increase being in Germany (AOR for trend=10.07[7.54-13.46]) and Austria (AOR for trend=10.07[7.32-13.74]). The overall proportion using antidepressants was positively associated with national health expenditure (coefficient=5.43[1.62-9.25]), but not with gross national income per capita or the number of psychiatrists, general practitioners, or psychiatric hospital beds. In 15/19 countries, antidepressants were used less by ≥65-year-olds than 50-64-year-olds, with the smallest differential reported in Luxembourg (AOR=0.70[0.49, 0.98]) and the highest in Germany (AOR=0.28[0.21, 0.37]); this disparity widened in 12/15 countries. Men used antidepressants less than women in 8/19 countries, across phases. In 13/19 countries, people with physical disability were more likely to receive antidepressants, with the smallest gap in Italy (AOR=1.42[1.12-1.80]) and the largest in Israel (AOR=2.34[1.46-3.74]); this disparity narrowed in 5/13 countries. Disparity by wealth was found in 8/19 countries, but its temporal trend varied. Interpretation: Usage of antidepressants by those with depressive symptoms has increased, with wide variation between countries and subgroups. Disparities across age, sex, and disability should prompt further research. Funding: Medical Research Council (grants MC_PC_17213 and MR/W014386/1), UK National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Applied Research Collaboration (ARC) East of England, NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre (BRC-1215-20014).

How Socio-Economic Drivers Explain Landscape Soil Erosion Regulation Services in Polish Catchments.

Most studies that address the relationship between socio-economic characteristics and soil erosion focus on the effects of soil erosion on socio-economic conditions at different levels, from global to smallholder. Few, if any, efforts are made to address the influence of socio-economic variables on the soil erosion rate as an indicator of landscape degradation. The present study was carried out using spatial data from 402 catchments that cover Poland, to find out how socio-economic variables, which include area-weighted average income per capita (PLN km-2), area-weighted average gross domestic product (PLN km-2), population density (person km-2), and human development index can drive the soil erosion rate (kg ha-1 yr-1), along with annual precipitation, soil and geomorphological variables that include soil organic carbon content, soil water content, clay ratio, stream gradient, and terrain slope. The results showed that the soil erosion rate is indirectly driven by the socio-economic variables in the study catchments, as it is alleviated by increasing population density, the area-weighted average gross domestic product, and the human development index. Furthermore, analyzing the incremental relationship between soil erosion rate and the area-weighted average of socio-economic variables revealed that no uniform change can be observed in the relationship between the area-weighted average socio-economic variables and soil erosion in the study catchments.

Impact of Income, Density, and Population Size on PM2.5 Pollutions: A Scaling Analysis of 254 Large Cities in Six Developed Countries.

Despite numerous studies on multiple socio-economic factors influencing urban PM2.5 pollution in China, only a few comparable studies have focused on developed countries. We analyzed the impact of three major socio-economic factors (i.e., income per capita, population density, and population size of a city) on PM2.5 concentrations for 254 cities from six developed countries. We used the Stochastic Impacts by Regression on Population, Affluence and Technology (STIRPAT) model with three separate data sets covering the period of 2001 to 2013. Each data set of 254 cities were further categorized into five subgroups of cities ranked by variable levels of income, density, and population. The results from the multivariate panel regression revealed a wide variation of coefficients. The most consistent results came from the six income coefficients, all of which met the statistical test of significance. All income coefficients except one carried negative signs, supporting the applicability of the environmental Kuznet curve. In contrast, the five density coefficients produced statistically significant positive signs, supporting the results from previous studies. However, we discovered an interesting U-shaped distribution of density coefficients across the six subgroups of cities, which may be unique to developed countries with urban pollution. The results from the population coefficients were not conclusive, which is similar to the results of previous studies. Implications from the results of this study for urban and national policy makers are discussed.

Associations between early childhood caries, malnutrition and anemia: a global perspective.

BACKGROUND: Malnutrition is the main risk factor for most common communicable diseases. The aim of this study is to determine the relationship between country-level prevalence of early childhood caries (ECC), malnutrition and anemia in infants and preschool children. METHODS: Matched country-level ECC, malnutrition and anemia prevalence were generated from databases covering the period 2000 to 2017. Multivariate general linear models were developed to assess the relationship between outcome variables (prevalence of stunting, wasting, overweight, and anemia) and the explanatory variable (ECC prevalence) adjusted for gross national income per capita. Adjusted regression coefficients (B) and partial eta squared were computed. RESULTS: The mean (standard deviation (SD)) ECC prevalence was 23.8 (14.8)% for 0-2 year-olds and 57.3 (22.4)% for 3-5-year-olds. The mean (SD) prevalence of wasting was 6.3 (4.8)%, overweight 7.2 (4.9)%, stunting 24.3 (13.5)%, and anemia 37.8 (18.1)%. For 0-2-year-olds, the strongest and only significant association was between the prevalence of ECC and overweight (η2 = 0.21): 1 % higher ECC prevalence was associated with 0.12% higher prevalence of overweight (B = 0.12, P = 0.03). In 3-5-year-olds, the strongest and only significant association was between the prevalence of ECC and anemia (η2 = 0.08): 1 % higher prevalence of ECC was associated with 0.14% lower prevalence of anemia (B = - 0.14, P = 0.048). CONCLUSION: Country-level prevalence of ECC was associated with malnutrition in 0-2-year-olds and with anemia in 3-5-year-olds. The pathway for the direct relationship between ECC and overweight may be diet related. The pathway for the inverse relationship between ECC and anemia is less clear and needs further investigations.

The Relationship Between Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions, Schwartz's Cultural Values, and Obesity.

According to the World Health Organization, obesity is a major public health issue. In 2014, there were more than 600 million obese people around the world. According to the data of the World Health Organization, obesity rates differ among countries. One possible underlying reason of the difference can be culture, more specifically shared cultural values. The strategies and policies regarding obesity were developed; however, the effect of culture is not adequately considered. The aim of the study is to investigate the relationship between obesity rates of countries, Hofstede's cultural dimensions, Schwartz's values, and Gross National Income per capita per country. The data consist of obesity ranking (i.e., the percentage of the population with a body mass index of 30 kg/m2 or higher), Gross National Income per capita for each country, and cultural variables (i.e., Hofstede's cultural dimensions for 54 nations and Schwartz's cultural values for 57 nations). Hierarchical regression analysis results revealed that Gross National Income per capita was not a significantly related obesity at the aggregated level. Among Hofstede's dimensions, individualism and uncertainty avoidance were positively associated with obesity, and long-term orientation was negatively associated with obesity. The relationship between Schwartz's cultural values and obesity was not found to be significant. Findings suggest that Hofstede's cultural dimensions should be considered when developing national level strategies and campaigns to decrease obesity.

Gasto público y salud en el mundo, 1990-2012 / A Public expenditure and world's health, 1990-2012

Introducción: La evidencia empírica dispar relacionada con el efecto del gasto público en materia sanitaria puede deberse a las importantes variaciones metodológicas de los estudios y a las diferencias significativas en la forma en que el gasto público influye dependiendo del nivel de desarrollo de los países. Objetivo: Determinar la relación entre el gasto público total del Gobierno general y la mortalidad infantil y la esperanza de vida. Métodos: Investigación realizada en una muestra de 78 países segmentada por niveles de renta, desde 1990 hasta 2012. Se constituyeron cinco submuestras de países divididos por su nivel de renta mediante un procedimiento de agrupación no jerárquico de k-medias. Se verificó la procedencia de la segmentación mediante el test de Chow. Para cada una de las submuestras construidas, se estimó el modelo correspondiente por mínimos cuadrados generales lineales y un test de cointegración. Resultados: En las submuestras superiores en nivel de renta, la salud se relacionó significativa y consistentemente con el gasto público. Sin embargo, en los países de renta inferior-baja, el coeficiente del gasto presentó un signo contrario al esperado. Conclusiones: Se demuestra un impacto positivo y de largo plazo entre el gasto público y la situación sanitaria. Sin embargo, para los países de menor renta, este parece haber superado su punto óptimo, lo que indicaría su ineficiencia en términos sanitarios. Se conjetura que lo anterior se debe a la baja capacidad institucional de estos países, lo que impide que un mayor gasto obtenga mejores resultados sanitarios(AU)

Introduction: The disparate empirical evidence related with the effect of public expenditure on health may be due to the significant methodological variations of the studies, as well as the significant differences in the way in which public expenditure influences depending on the level of development of the countries. Objective: To determine the relation among the total public expenditure of the General Government, and infant mortality and life expectancy. Methods: Research project carried out with a sample of 78 countries segmented by income levels from 1990 to 2012. By means of a non - hierarchical grouping of k - media, five sub-samples of countries were formed and divided by their income level. The origin of the segmentation was verified by means of the Chow test. Linear GLS and a cointegration test were applied on each subsample. Results: In the upper subsamples at the income level, health was significantly and consistently related to public expenditure. However, in the lower-low income countries, the expenditure coefficient showed a sign opposite to that expected. Conclusions: There is evidence of a positive and long-term impact among public expenditure and the health situation. However, for lower income countries, this seems to have surpassed its optimum point, which would indicate its inefficiency in sanitary terms. It is conjectured that this is due to the low institutional capacity of these countries, which hampers that greater expenditure obtains better sanitary results(AU)

Gasto público y salud en el mundo, 1990-2012 / A Public expenditure and world's health, 1990-2012

Introducción: La evidencia empírica dispar relacionada con el efecto del gasto público en materia sanitaria puede deberse a las importantes variaciones metodológicas de los estudios y a las diferencias significativas en la forma en que el gasto público influye dependiendo del nivel de desarrollo de los países. Objetivo: Determinar la relación entre el gasto público total del Gobierno general y la mortalidad infantil y la esperanza de vida. Métodos: Investigación realizada en una muestra de 78 países segmentada por niveles de renta, desde 1990 hasta 2012. Se constituyeron cinco submuestras de países divididos por su nivel de renta mediante un procedimiento de agrupación no jerárquico de k-medias. Se verificó la procedencia de la segmentación mediante el test de Chow. Para cada una de las submuestras construidas, se estimó el modelo correspondiente por mínimos cuadrados generales lineales y un test de cointegración. Resultados: En las submuestras superiores en nivel de renta, la salud se relacionó significativa y consistentemente con el gasto público. Sin embargo, en los países de renta inferior-baja, el coeficiente del gasto presentó un signo contrario al esperado. Conclusiones: Se demuestra un impacto positivo y de largo plazo entre el gasto público y la situación sanitaria. Sin embargo, para los países de menor renta, este parece haber superado su punto óptimo, lo que indicaría su ineficiencia en términos sanitarios. Se conjetura que lo anterior se debe a la baja capacidad institucional de estos países, lo que impide que un mayor gasto obtenga mejores resultados sanitarios(AU)

Introduction: The disparate empirical evidence related with the effect of public expenditure on health may be due to the significant methodological variations of the studies, as well as the significant differences in the way in which public expenditure influences depending on the level of development of the countries. Objective: To determine the relation among the total public expenditure of the General Government, and infant mortality and life expectancy. Methods: Research project carried out with a sample of 78 countries segmented by income levels from 1990 to 2012. By means of a non - hierarchical grouping of k - media, five sub-samples of countries were formed and divided by their income level. The origin of the segmentation was verified by means of the Chow test. Linear GLS and a cointegration test were applied on each subsample. Results: In the upper subsamples at the income level, health was significantly and consistently related to public expenditure. However, in the lower-low income countries, the expenditure coefficient showed a sign opposite to that expected. Conclusions: There is evidence of a positive and long-term impact among public expenditure and the health situation. However, for lower income countries, this seems to have surpassed its optimum point, which would indicate its inefficiency in sanitary terms. It is conjectured that this is due to the low institutional capacity of these countries, which hampers that greater expenditure obtains better sanitary results(AU)

Bolsa Família e desigualdade da renda domiciliar entre 2006 e 2011 / Bolsa Família and inequality of household income between 2006 and 2011

Os programas de transferência condicionada de renda têm crescentemente desempenhado um papel importante no combate à pobreza em vários países da América Latina, principalmente no Brasil. O objetivo deste artigo é analisar a contribuição do programa Bolsa Família na diminuição da desigualdade da renda domiciliar per capita no Brasil, entre 2006 e 2011. Para isso, analisa-se a participação relativa de oito fontes de renda ­ trabalho, aposentadorias, programa Bolsa Família (variável proxy), pensões, abonos, doações, aluguéis e juros ­ no Brasil e nas suas cinco macrorregiões. Assim, além do artigo detalhar a técnica matemática utilizada para decompor o Índice de Gini, apresenta e discute os resultados empíricos encontrados para o Brasil e suas macrorregiões. Dentre os resultados, destaca-se a capacidade do programa Bolsa Família em contribuir para a queda da desigualdade da renda domiciliar nacional, o que se explica por sua acentuada focalização.

The programs of conditional cash transfer has played an increasingly important role in combating poverty in several countries in Latin America, mainly Brazil. The objective of this paper is to analyze the contribution of the Bolsa Família program in reducing inequality in per capita household income in Brazil between 2006 and 2011 For this, we analyze the relative participation of eight sources of income ­ working, retirements, Scholarship Program family ( proxy variable), pensions, allowances, grants, rents and interest ­ in the five macro-regions of Brazil. Thus, besides the article detailing the mathematical technique used to decompose the Gini Index, presents and discusses the empirical results found for Brazil and its geographical regions. Among the results highlighted the ability of the Bolsa Família program in contributing to the downfall of the national household income inequality, which is explained by its sharp focus.

The Effect of Fertility Reduction on Economic Growth.

We assess quantitatively the effect of exogenous reductions in fertility on output per capita. Our simulation model allows for effects that run through schooling, the size and age structure of the population, capital accumulation, parental time input into child-rearing, and crowding of fixed natural resources. The model is parameterized using a combination of microeconomic estimates, data on demographics and natural resource income in developing countries, and standard components of quantitative macroeconomic theory. We apply the model to examine the effect of a change in fertility from the UN medium-variant to the UN low-variant projection, using Nigerian vital rates as a baseline. For a base case set of parameters, we find that such a change would raise output per capita by 5.6 percent at a horizon of 20 years, and by 11.9 percent at a horizon of 50 years.

Associations of physique with the socioeconomic factors of family and regional origin in Chinese university students.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study is to define and clarify the causes of differences in physique between urban students and rural students in China. METHODS: Subjects are 2,524 students (male, 838; female, 1686) who entered K University in Shanghai in September, 2001. The data used in this study is based upon K university's Yearly Health Check Record and Students' Family Condition Record. Correlation analysis, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) were applied to analyze the relationships between physique and gross family income, family income per capita, latitude, air temperature, precipitation or altitude. RESULTS: Urban students' height and weight are significantly greater than rural students' in both males and females. Both male students and female students are significantly taller and heavier in accordance with per capita increases in students' family income. The height and weight of male and female students whose parents are peasant farmers are least. With regard to the relationship between physique and urban-rural factors, the F value decreases clearly when family income per capita is taken as a covariate, while the F values slightly decrease also when factors of latitude etc. are taken as covariates. The main cause of differing family income is occupational difference between urban areas and rural ones. CONCLUSION: Students born in urban areas are taller and heavier than those born in rural areas. The main cause of these differences is family income per capita. The main cause of variations in family income is the income difference in occupations.

Associations of physique with the socioeconomic factors of family and regional origin in Chinese university students

<p><b>OBJECTIVES</b>The purpose of this study is to define and clarify the causes of differences in physique between urban students and rural students in China.</p><p><b>METHODS</b>Subjects are 2,524 students (male, 838; female, 1686) who entered K University in Shanghai in September, 2001. The data used in this study is based upon K university's Yearly Health Check Record and Students' Family Condition Record. Correlation analysis, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) were applied to analyze the relationships between physique and gross family income, family income per capita, latitude, air temperature, precipitation or altitude.</p><p><b>RESULTS</b>Urban students' height and weight are significantly greater than rural students' in both males and females. Both male students and female students are significantly taller and heavier in accordance with per capita increases in students' family income. The height and weight of male and female students whose parents are peasant farmers are least. With regard to the relationship between physique and urban-rural factors, the F value decreases clearly when family income per capita is taken as a covariate, while the F values slightly decrease also when factors of latitude etc. are taken as covariates. The main cause of differing family income is occupational difference between urban areas and rural ones.</p><p><b>CONCLUSION</b>Students born in urban areas are taller and heavier than those born in rural areas. The main cause of these differences is family income per capita. The main cause of variations in family income is the income difference in occupations.</p>