Impact of L-theanine and L-tyrosine on markers of stress and cognitive performance in response to a virtual reality based active shooter training drill.

Ingestion of L-theanine and L-tyrosine has been shown to reduce salivary stress biomarkers and improve aspects of cognitive performance in response to stress. However, there have been no studies to concurrently examine the impact of both L-theanine and L-tyrosine ingestion during a mental stress challenge (MSC) involving a brief cognitive challenge and a virtual reality based active shooter training drill. Thus, the purpose of this study was to determine the impact of ingestion of L-theanine and L-tyrosine on markers of stress and cognitive performance in response to a virtual reality active shooter drill and cognitive challenge. The cognitive challenge involved a Stroop challenge and mental arithmetic. Eighty subjects (age = 21 ± 2.6 yrs; male = 46; female = 34) were randomly assigned L-tyrosine (n = 28; 2000 mg), L-theanine (n = 25; 200 mg), or placebo (n = 27) prior to MSC exposure. Saliva samples, state-anxiety inventory (SAI) scales, and heart rate (HR) were collected before and after exposure to the MSC. Saliva was analyzed for stress markers α-amylase (sAA) and secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA). The MSC resulted in significant increases in sAA, SIgA, HR, and SAI. Ingestion of L-theanine and L-tyrosine did not impact markers of stress. However, the L-tyrosine treatment demonstrated significantly lower missed responses compared to the placebo treatment group during the Stroop challenge. These data demonstrate that ingestion of L-theanine or L-tyrosine does not impact markers of stress in response to a MSC but may impact cognitive performance. This study was pre-registered as a clinical trial ("Impact of supplements on stress markers": NCT05592561).

Are you a cop?: Identifying suspicion in online chat operations with online groomers.

BACKGROUND: The increase in online enticement has led to law enforcement agencies engaging in more proactive policing through undercover chat sting operations. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to identify the topics and communication strategies triggering suspicion in chats between law enforcement officers and offenders and why those topics do not result in suspicion in victim-offender conversations. METHODS: We conducted a thematic analysis identifying: (1) how LEOs trigger suspicion, (2) how offenders communicate suspicion, (3) how LEOs attempt recovery from suspicion, and (4) how these triggers were present but did not trigger suspicion in victim-offender chats. We examined 20 LEO-offender chats and 20 victim-offender chats from US ICAC task forces. RESULTS: We identified four themes that triggered suspicion: risk assessment by the LEO's persona, LEO avoidance measures, details related to the offense and evidence, and proof of identity of chat participants. Offender responses to triggers revealed three themes: discomfort navigating boundaries and uncertainty, risk identification, and risk mitigation. Themes for the LEO's responses to suspicion included: risk assessment for chatters, issues with technology, appeasement, and negative emotional reactions. Finally, juxtaposing triggers onto minor-offender chats yielded four themes: explicit boundary setting, victim risk assessment, deep relationship forming and disclosures, and technology issues. CONCLUSION: This study has implications for law enforcement agencies seeking to reduce suspicion and risk assessment by offenders during internet sting operations.

Fighting behavior, conflict perceptions, and firearm access among U.S. adolescents in a pediatric emergency department.

OBJECTIVE: Prior evidence demonstrates that both firearm access and fighting can predict future violence and injury in adolescents. We aimed to examine associations between firearm access with fighting behavior and conflict perception in a sample of adolescents in an urban emergency department (ED) setting. METHODS: In 2023, we conducted a secondary analysis of 13,610 adolescent encounters in the ED of a U.S. children's hospital from 2013 to 2020, using a universally applied, self-administered computerized behavioral health survey. We compared patient characteristics by reported firearm access and fighting behavior using chi-squared tests. Generalized estimating equations (GEE) were used to investigate associations between 1) fighting behavior and firearm access, and 2) between fighting behavior and respondent preference to and reporting of fighting incident to law enforcement after adjusting for race and ethnicity, age, and gender. RESULTS: Approximately one-quarter of the sample reported past year fighting. Youth who reported fighting were more likely to report firearm access (AOR = 1.66, 95%CI = [1.49-1.86]). This association strengthened among youth who perceived continued conflict after a fight (AOR = 2.05, 95%CI = [1.73-2.43]). Youth who perceived continued conflict following a fight were more likely to report (AOR = 1.97, 95%CI = [1.65-2.36]) or want to report (AOR = 2.63, 95%CI = [1.81-3.81]) the fight to law enforcement. CONCLUSIONS: Those perceiving continued conflict after a fight were more likely to report access to firearms and endorse retaliation; however, they were more likely to want to report the fight to law enforcement. These findings highlight the potential for more comprehensive ED risk assessment to reduce retaliation and reinjury for adolescents reporting fighting behavior.

Predictors of Criminal Sentiments Scale-Modified Scores in Outpatients with Legal System Involvement.

The Criminal Sentiments Scale-Modified (CSS-M) has been widely used as a measure of criminal attitudes. This analysis examined CSS-M scores in a large sample of outpatients with serious mental illnesses and a criminal legal system history. We compared total and subscale scores in our sample to scores from two other previously published U.S. studies in which the CSS-M was used, and evaluated associations between total CSS-M score and nine variables (age, educational attainment, gender, race, marital status, employment status, diagnostic category, substance use disorder comorbidity, and adverse childhood experiences (ACE) score). Scores were higher than in two prior U.S. studies involving other types of samples. Independently significant predictors of higher CSS-M scores included being younger (P < .001), having a higher ACE score (P < .001), being male (P = 03), not identifying as White (P < 001), not having a psychotic disorder (P < 001), and having a comorbid substance use disorder (P = 002). Future research should test the hypothesis that these factors increase risk for arrest and that arrest events, and subsequent criminal legal system involvement, are characterized by negative experiences and perceptions of poor procedural justice, which in turn underpin the negative opinions referred to as "criminal sentiments" or criminal attitudes.

The Road to 988/911 Interoperability: Three Case Studies on Call Transfer, Colocation, and Community Response.

The 988 Suicide and Crisis Lifeline-known more simply as 988-holds promise for significantly improving the mental health of Americans and accelerating the decriminalization of mental illness. However, the rapid transition to 988 has left many gaps as communities scramble to prepare-not the least of which includes determining how 988 will interface with local 911 response systems and law enforcement. 911 is often the default option for individuals experiencing mental health emergencies, despite the fact that 911 call centers have limited resources to address behavioral health crises. Since 988 launched in 2022, one key area of focus has been ways that jurisdictions approach 988/911 interoperability: the existence of formal protocols, procedures, or agreements that allow for the transfer of calls from 988 to 911 and vice versa. This study presents case studies from three jurisdictions that have established models of 988/911 interoperability. It provides details related to interoperability in each model, including the role of each agency, points of interagency communication, and decision points that can affect the way a call flows through the local system. It also identifies facilitators, barriers, and equity-related considerations of each jurisdiction's approach, as well as lessons learned from implementation. This study should be of interest to jurisdictions that are looking to implement 988/911 interoperability, including those that are spearheading local initiatives and those that are responding to state-level legislation. Its findings are relevant to 988 call centers, public safety answering points, mobile crisis units, law enforcement, and local and state decisionmakers.

Adult Drug Treatment Courts and Community-Level Drug Possession Arrests.

Though the literature largely recognizes adult drug treatment courts (ADCs) as beneficial to participants, with lower rates of recidivism and drug use, the question remains of how ADCs impact communities and how other institutions (e.g., law enforcement) react to their presence. This study extends previous work estimating higher arrests associated with ADCs, particularly for crimes involving higher degrees of law enforcement discretion. Results indicate lower drug possession arrest rates for White residents in rural communities, and higher in urban areas, generally, but especially for Black citizens. Though the exact source of these changes has yet to be determined, current analysis indicates larger effect sizes for arrests scaled per officer, as compared to per population, pointing toward changes in law enforcement behavior.

Gender differences in homicides. A comparative analysis of 106 fatalities in forensic autopsy data.

While most homicides worldwide are committed against men, women and girls are disproportionately affected by domestic violence and its fatal consequences. The Istanbul Convention mandates the prevention of gender-based violence, particularly against women. This study analyzes the characteristics of male and female victims of homicides to provide a comprehensive understanding of the different situations and ways in which men and women are killed. Files of 106 forensic autopsies of homicide victims aged 14 years and older (51.9% males, 48.1% females) from 2012 to 2019 were reviewed. Demographic data, previous history with a focus on the perpetrator-victim relationship, substance influence, type of violence and law enforcement data were recorded. A gender-separated statistical analysis was carried out. Male victims were killed most often outside their own home (63.6%) by acquaintances or friends (54.5%). They were frequently under the influence of substances (56.4%). The perpetrators suffered from addictive diseases in 49.1%, and 52.7% had prior convictions. In both groups, stab/cut injuries were the most common causes of death, but stab/cut and gunshot injuries occurred more frequently in male victims. Female victims were killed most often in their own homes (76.5%) by intimate partners (62.7%). Compared to male victims, violent asphyxiation and blunt force trauma were more common causes of death. Furthermore, there was a higher frequency of multiple injuries (33.3%). The prevalence of a guilty verdict of the perpetrators was nearly equal in both groups. Gender-specific aspects should be considered when investigating homicides and establishing prevention and intervention strategies for interpersonal violence. Protective concepts are easier to establish in the public sphere than in private homes, which is why homicides against women require special attention in society, law enforcement, and legislation. Significant gender differences were found in the circumstances and the perpetrator-victim relationships of homicides. Gender-specific aspects should be taken into account when investigating homicides and developing prevention and intervention strategies. Homicides against women require special attention in society, law enforcement and legislation.

Order Keepers or Immigration Agents? Latine Immigrant Views of Law Enforcement in Healthcare Settings.

BACKGROUND: Police and security presence in healthcare settings have grown. There are few studies exploring perceptions of these law enforcement agents among US Latine immigrants, who can be vulnerable to immigration enforcement actions due to past and ongoing criminalization and anti-immigrant policies. OBJECTIVE: To explore Latine immigrants' perceptions of law enforcement in healthcare settings. DESIGN: Exploratory, semi-structured qualitative interviews asked participants about their perspectives of law enforcement in healthcare settings. PARTICIPANTS: English- and Spanish-speaking adult patients (n = 19) from a Federally Qualified Health Center (FQHC) in Los Angeles, CA, serving predominantly low-income Latine immigrants. APPROACH: We used the framework method for analysis to establish a codebook and inform our thematic interpretation. KEY RESULTS: We identified three themes: (1) perceptions of safety offered by police officers are separated from the role of immigration officers; (2) perceptions of police officers are integrated into broader perceptions of the healthcare system; and (3) lived experiences, including immigration status, influenced valence response to officer uniforms and perceptions of officers. Most participants viewed police officers positively as maintaining order and safety, separating them from federal immigration enforcement actions, and reflecting on local, state, and organizational "sanctuary" or immigrant-friendly policies. Individuals with precarious immigration status more often saw officers as intimidating. Immigration enforcement remained a key concern. CONCLUSIONS: Differentiating police and security roles from immigration enforcement in healthcare could improve Latine immigrant trust and access. Future studies should explore perspectives of Latine immigrants in localities without sanctuary laws or organizational immigrant-friendly policies.

Relationship between Civilian Injuries Caused during Contact with Law Enforcement and Community-Level Sociodemographic Characteristics.

Civilian injuries caused during contact with law enforcement personnel erode community trust in policing, impact individual well-being, and exacerbate existing health inequities. We assessed the relationship between ZIP code-level rates of civilian injuries caused during legal interventions and community-level sociodemographic characteristics using Illinois hospital data from 2016 to 2022. We developed multivariable Poisson regression models to examine whether legal intervention injury rates differed by race-ethnicity and community economic disadvantage across three geographic regions of Illinois representing different levels of urbanization. Over the study period, 4976 civilian injuries were treated in Illinois hospitals (rate of 5.6 per 100,000 residents). Compared to non-Hispanic white residents, non-Hispanic Black residents demonstrated 5.5-10.5 times higher injury rates across the three geographic regions, and Hispanic-Latino residents demonstrated higher rates in Chicago and suburban Cook County, but lower rates in the rest of the state. In most regions, models showed that as the percent of minority residents in a ZIP code increased, injury rates among non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic-Latino residents decreased. As community economic disadvantage increased at the ZIP code level, civilian injury rates increased. Communities with the highest injury rates involving non-Hispanic white residents were significantly more economically unequal and disadvantaged. While the injury rates were consistently and substantially higher among non-Hispanic Black residents throughout the state, the findings illustrate that the association between overall civilian injuries caused during contact with law enforcement and community sociodemographic characteristics varied across regions. Data on local law enforcement agency policies and procedures are needed to better identify appropriate interventions.

Awareness of medical cannabis regulations among UK police officers - a cross-sectional study.

Cannabis-based products for medicinal use were rescheduled in the UK in November 2018. The primary outcomes of this cross-sectional survey were to assess awareness of legislation governing these products among UK police officers and whether they had received appropriate training. 200 police officers completed the survey, and 57 (28.5%) respondents did not know these products were legal on prescription in the UK. 177 (88.5%) police officers believed they would benefit from more training on them and how to identify legal medical cannabis patients. Education on the legalities of cannabis-based products for medicinal use and why they are prescribed is necessary to improve knowledge among police officers.

Training Law Enforcement Officers About Autism: Evaluation of Adding Virtual Reality or Simulation to a Traditional Training Approach.

Prevalence rates of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) across the globe and lifespan suggest that law enforcement officers (LEOs) are likely to interact with autistic people in their professional duties. In developed countries, LEOs have professional encounters with autistic individuals, and research strongly supports LEOs need training to increase their knowledge about autism and confidence interacting with autistic people. The purpose of the present study is to compare three training approaches with LEOs: (a) a training presentation alone (P), (b) a training presentation combined with virtual reality simulation (P + VR), and (c) a training presentation combined with in-vivo simulation (P + SIM). The primary outcomes are LEO knowledge of autism and self-reported confidence in responding to autism calls. The present study included 259 LEOS who completed a survey assessing autism knowledge and confidence in level of skill before and after participating in ASD-specific training for LEOs. Findings support that participant knowledge of autism and confidence in responding significantly increased for all LEOs equally across training conditions. Results support that formalized training in ASD significantly impacts LEO's knowledge of ASD and confidence responding to calls. As such, standardized training for LEOs is needed to assure appropriate knowledge and confidence when responding to calls involving autistic persons.

Engaging Law Enforcement Employees in Mental Health Help-Seeking: Examining the Utilization of Interactive Screening Program and Motivational Interviewing Techniques.

AIM: The Interactive Screening Program (ISP) is an anonymous screening and dialogue platform used in workplaces to encourage mental health help-seeking. This study examined utilization of ISP among law enforcement workplaces and assessed how motivational interviewing techniques were associated with various help-seeking outcomes. METHOD: This retrospective study used secondary ISP screening and dialogue data collected from 2013 to 2019 at four law enforcement workplaces or unions (N = 691). Independent variables include counselors' use of motivational interviewing techniques in their dialogue such as asking questions and showing empathy in their response. Help-seeking outcomes include requesting a referral, making a commitment to counseling services, decreased ambivalence about mental health services, and increased willingness to seek future services. RESULTS: Two-thirds of participants screened within the high distress level of ISP. Among them, 53% responded to the counselor's initial email and 50% of those who responded requested a referral for future services. Binary logistic regression models showed that counselors' use of confrontation in the dialogue was associated with improved willingness to seek services among ISP users (OR = 2.88, 95% CI = 1.24, 6.64). Further, ISP users who accessed ISP through their workplace peer support program, as compared to their employee assistance program (EAP), are more likely to show decreased ambivalence about seeking future services over time (OR = 0.28, 95% CI = 0.09, 0.80). CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates that the anonymous ISP program can successfully engage employees with high distress levels, including employees with suicidal ideation. Results highlight the importance of customizing ISP counselors' responses to be responsive for law enforcement employees.

Sensor for Rapid In-Field Classification of Cannabis Samples Based on Near-Infrared Spectroscopy.

A rugged handheld sensor for rapid in-field classification of cannabis samples based on their THC content using ultra-compact near-infrared spectrometer technology is presented. The device is designed for use by the Austrian authorities to discriminate between legal and illegal cannabis samples directly at the place of intervention. Hence, the sensor allows direct measurement through commonly encountered transparent plastic packaging made from polypropylene or polyethylene without any sample preparation. The measurement time is below 20 s. Measured spectral data are evaluated using partial least squares discriminant analysis directly on the device's hardware, eliminating the need for internet connectivity for cloud computing. The classification result is visually indicated directly on the sensor via a colored LED. Validation of the sensor is performed on an independent data set acquired by non-expert users after a short introduction. Despite the challenging setting, the achieved classification accuracy is higher than 80%. Therefore, the handheld sensor has the potential to reduce the number of unnecessarily confiscated legal cannabis samples, which would lead to significant monetary savings for the authorities.

Cognitive workload classification of law enforcement officers using physiological responses.

Motor vehicle crashes (MVCs) are a leading cause of death for law enforcement officers (LEOs) in the U.S. LEOs and more specifically novice LEOs (nLEOs) are susceptible to high cognitive workload while driving which can lead to fatal MVCs. The objective of this study was to develop a machine learning algorithm (MLA) that can estimate cognitive workload of LEOs while performing secondary tasks in a patrol vehicle. A ride-along study was conducted with 24 nLEOs. Participants performed their normal patrol operations while their physiological responses such as heartrate, eye movement, and galvanic skin response were recorded using unobtrusive devices. Findings suggested that the random forest algorithm could predict cognitive workload with relatively high accuracy (>70%) given that it was entirely reliant on physiological signals. The developed MLA can be used to develop adaptive in-vehicle technology based on real-time estimation of cognitive workload, which can reduce the risk of MVCs in police operations.

Tracing the Untraceables: A Joint Outbreak Investigation With Law Enforcement Using a Geographic Information System.

The application of geospatial data often allows the tracing of people who are involved in activities of an illegal nature. In June 2021, we estimated the true magnitude of the spread of COVID-19 within the networks of escort-karaoke bars in Seoul, Republic of Korea, using geographic information system (GIS)-based contact tracing that was applied to our epidemiological investigation. Our joint rapid response team, composed of epidemic investigation officers and police personnel, identified 19 paper-traced cases and 158 GIS-traced cases from 5,692 confirmed cases in Seoul during the study period (June to July 2021). Our findings suggest that collaboration with law enforcement agencies and the use of overlaid satellite imagery in outbreak investigations enhances high vigilance and reduces the risk of potential breaches of human rights in the process.

Spirituality/Religion Among First Responders With and Without Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Alcohol Misuse.

Objective: To examine the co-occurrence of alcohol misuse and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and potential sources of coping (e.g., spirituality/religion) and clinically relevant variables among first responders (e.g., firefighters, law enforcement corrections officers, paramedics). Method: We assessed rates of independent and co-occurring alcohol misuse and PTSD among a national online sample of 320 first responders as well as the prevalence and salience of S/R, guilt, shame, moral injury, aspects of S/R, and treatment interest. Results: In our sample, 46.88% (n = 150) met criteria for comorbid alcohol misuse and probable PTSD and individuals with these comorbid conditions reported significantly greater negative religious coping, moral injury, and shame than all other diagnostic groups (i.e., independent alcohol misuse, independent PTSD, and neither). Correlations also revealed significant relationships between alcohol misuse and PTSD symptomatology with positive and negative religious coping, moral injury, shame, guilt, interest in treatment, and interest in spiritually integrated treatment. Conclusions: Findings highlight the high rates of independent and co-occurring alcohol misuse and PTSD among first responders as well as the salience of S/R in this population.

Longitudinal Assessment of Emergency Responders' Attitudes Toward People Who Overdose and Naloxone Following an Overdose Education Training.

BACKGROUND: In addition to teaching overdose recognition and response, overdose education and naloxone distribution (OEND) trainings for emergency responders aim to improve trainee attitudes toward people who use drugs and toward naloxone. This study examines the training effectiveness long term, as well as the extent to which improvements are dependent on profession type or recent experience administering naloxone. METHODS: A total of 774 emergency responders, consisting of law enforcement officers (LEOs) (n = 624, 81%) and emergency medical service (EMS) personnel (n = 150, 19%), attended OEND trainings and completed surveys immediately prior to ("pre") and following ("post") the training, as well as 6 months later ("follow-up"). Survey items assessed attitudes toward people who have overdosed, naloxone-related risk compensation (ie, "enabling") beliefs, and whether participants had administered naloxone since attending the training. Multiple regression and estimated marginal means were used to evaluate changes in scores. RESULTS: Emergency responders showed improved attitudes (pre = 2.60, follow-up = 2.45, P < .001) and risk compensation beliefs (pre = 2.97, follow-up = 2.67, P < .001) 6 months following the training. Follow-up scores differed by profession, with LEOs endorsing worse attitudes (difference = 0.55, P = .013) and more risk compensation beliefs (difference = 0.67, P = .014) than EMS. In addition, having recently administered naloxone predicted more negative attitudes (EMS: difference = 0.55, P = .01; LEO: difference = 0.54, P = .004) and risk compensation beliefs (EMS = 0.73, P = .006; LEO = 0.69, P = .002) at follow-up. CONCLUSION: Six months after an OEND training, emergency responders' attitudes toward people who overdose, and their risk compensation beliefs remained improved. However, LEOs had more negative follow-up attitudes and beliefs compared to EMS. Emergency responders who had administered naloxone had worse attitudes and beliefs at follow-up than those who had not. Of note, our sample evidenced sizable attrition between pre and follow-up assessments, leaving room for selection bias. Future studies should investigate how to mitigate negative effects of administering naloxone on attitudes toward those who overdose, and belief that naloxone is "enabling."

Cardiovascular risk, social vigilance, and stress profiles of male law enforcement officers versus civilians.

This study examined the cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk profiles of male law enforcement officers (LEOs) and civilians. CVD risk profiles were based on data collected using traditional objective (e.g., resting BP, cholesterol), novel objective (e.g., ambulatory BP) and self-report measures (e.g., EMA social vigilance). A subset of male LEOs (n = 30, M age = 41.47, SD = 8.03) and male civilians (n = 120, M age = 40.73, SD = 13.52) from a larger study were included in analyses. Results indicated LEOs had significantly higher body mass index [BMI], 31.17 kg/m2 versus 28.87 kg/m2, and exhibited significantly higher trait and state social vigilance across multiple measures, whereas perceived stress was higher among civilians. Findings highlight the need for future research examining CVD risk associated with occupational health disparities, including attributes of individuals entering certain professions as well as experiential and environmental demands of the work.

Registering a proposed business reduces police stops of innocent people? Reconsidering the effects of strip clubs on sex crimes found in Ciacci & Sviatschi's study of New York City.

Ciacci & Sviatschi's (2021) 'The Effect of Adult Entertainment Establishments on Sex Crime: Evidence from New York City,' published in The Economic Journal, concluded that opening new adult entertainment businesses reduces sex crimes, with the most compelling finding that '[strip clubs, gentleman's clubs, and escort services] decrease sex crime by 13% per police precinct one week after the opening.' We contend that the study's conclusions speak beyond the data, which cannot support these findings because they do not measure the necessary variables. The study uses the date a business is registered with New York State as a proxy for its opening date, but the actual date of opening comes weeks or months later, after requirements such as inspections, licensure, and community board approval. The study then uses police Stop, Question and Frisk Reports as data about subsequent crimes. As reports created to memorialize forcible police stops based on less than probable cause, 94% of these reports document that the police had an unfounded belief in criminal activity, and the person stopped was innocent of any crime. In effect, what the study has done is measure changes in police encounters with innocent people in the week after an entity has filed the paperwork that will eventually allow it to open as a business. The study lacks construct validity, cannot reject the null hypothesis of its most important finding, and its methods fall short of the rigor necessary to permit replication.