Motor activities to improve maths performance in pre-school children with typical development.

Poor maths skills are associated with negative outcomes throughout life, such as lower academic qualifications, decreased professional success and socio-economic results. Mathematical skills emerge continuously throughout childhood and those that children acquire in pre-school are crucial for activities that support analytical thinking, problem-solving and reasoning and argumentation skills. Many of these activities are related to motor skills, since certain cognitive and motor areas of the brain are activated simultaneously when solving maths problems. Of all motor skills, visuomotor integration skills have been documented as those that are most consistently positively and significantly associated with maths performance in pre-school children. These skills are influenced by visual perception (spatial and attention skills), fine motor coordination and gross motor skills. Early intervention can improve visuomotor integration skills in pre-school children. Of all skills that make up visuomotor integration, spatial skills, in addition to being the first skills to influence numerical knowledge and the recognition of geometric shapes, are also those skills that form part of the majority of programs and activities to be worked on with pre-school children for the development of mathematical concepts. However, most intervention programs or activities to develop spatial skills are carried out in the classroom, usually through activities involving handling small objects. In this sense and given the significant association between visuomotor integration skills and gross motor skills, the main objective of this study was to list a set of activities to develop spatial skills, with a strong involvement of gross motor skills, in a classroom, playground or home context.

Adding up fine motor skills: Developmental relations between manual dexterity and numerical abilities.

The strength and development of the relationship between mathematical and motor skills is explored across three age groups of normally developing children. The presence of this relationship is postulated in classical accounts of human development. In contemporary research, the existence of a relationship between motor development and the development of abstract concepts may inform theories of embodied cognition. Existing work supports a link between fine motor skills and various numerical and mathematical tasks in young children; however, few attempts have been made to investigate this relationship across different ages. We use a cross-sectional design to investigate the link between fine motor and mathematical skills in samples of 81-96 Kindergarten, 2nd-grade, and 4th-grade children. Bayesian correlations were performed to explore the relationship between fine motor skills and mathematical skills at different time points. The results show that correlational patterns vary across the three ages: in Kindergarten, manual dexterity of the dominant hand is related to math skills, in 2nd grade, the manual dexterity of the nondominant hand is related to math skills; and finally in 4th grade no such correlations are observable. These findings contribute to understanding the developmental trajectory of the relationship between motor skills and mathematical abilities and the internalization of numerical embodiment. Further investigation is needed to determine if fine motor skills can serve as an early indicator of mathematical skill development risk. Future work could also explore whether incorporating spatial and motor elements into mathematical tasks through whole-body or finger movement training supports the development of mathematical skills.

Preliminary Adaptation of Motor Tests to Evaluate Fine Motor Skills Associated with Mathematical Skills in Preschoolers.

Mathematics is the subject in which many school-age children reveal difficulties. The literature has shown that fine motor skills, namely fine motor coordination and visuomotor integration, have been more robustly associated with mathematical performance. Studies have shown the importance that instruments have to evaluate these skills, however, the characteristics of these instruments do not fit the reality of kindergartens, they are usually time consuming and expensive and are usually administered by specialists. Thus, the main objective of this study was to identify, select, adapt and validate motor tests to evaluate fine motor skills associated with mathematical skills to allow the kindergarten teachers to apply them simultaneously to the class, with few material resources, in a short period of time and without the need for a lot of training to apply, score and classify. For this purpose, firstly, it was necessary to understand the main difficulties highlighted by kindergarten teachers regarding the use of instruments to evaluate fine motor skills and, thus, elaborate criteria to identify and select the tests that best fit the reality of kindergartens. The test identified, selected and adapted to evaluate fine motor coordination was threading beads from the Movement Evaluation Battery for Children, 2nd Edition. The main adaptation of the test was related to time, that is, instead of counting the time it takes the child to string the total number of cubes on the string, we counted the number of cubes the child strung on the string in a pre-defined time. To evaluate visual-motor integration, the test identified, selected and adapted was the Visual-Motor Integration (6th Edition) test. The main adaptation was related to material resources, that is, it will be possible to apply the test using only one sheet per child instead of the seven suggested by the original test. After the preliminary adaptation of the tests, their validation was performed by means of the degree of reliability (test-retest) and predictive validity. The results indicated that the adapted tests presented an excellent degree of reliability (>0.9) and could therefore be used to administer them simultaneously to the class group. The adapted Visual-Motor Integration test seems to be the most suitable one to be used by kindergarten teachers, in a classroom context, to simultaneously evaluate students' fine motor skills and associate their results with mathematical skills.

Early Maternal Employment And Children's School Readiness: Changing Associations Over Time?

This study assessed whether the links between early maternal employment and children's school readiness have changed over time. Research has examined mothers' labor force participation and its associations with children's well-being. As maternal employment has become more normative, these associations may have changed, particularly among subgroups of families. Data come from two large, longitudinal samples of children born in the U.S. in 1991 (N = 1042) and in 2001 (N = 7850). OLS regression models estimated changes between cohorts in the associations between early maternal employment and children's reading/language skills, math skills, and conduct problems at age 4 and school entry. Despite similar prevalence rates of maternal employment by 9 months between the 1991 and 2001 samples, there were differences in the demographic characteristics of mothers in each employment pattern over the decade. Examining associations between the early maternal employment patterns and children's school readiness, results revealed that full time employment by 9 months in comparison to non-employment shifted to having more positive associations with reading/language skills at age 4 and school entry from 1991 to 2001. However, full time maternal employment by 9 months was associated with children's higher conduct problems at school entry in 1991 and 2001, and by 2001, part time employment had similar repercussions. The results differed by family income. There have been small changes in the associations between early maternal employment and children's school readiness over time.

Cross-lagged relationship between home numeracy practices and early mathematical skills among Chinese young children.

The present study examined the cross-lagged relationship between home numeracy practices (e.g., formal teaching, number games, and number application) and early mathematical skills (basic number processing, and arithmetic skills) among Chinese young children. A total of 155 children (82 boys; mean age = 67.49 months, SD = 3.58 months) were assessed with basic number processing and arithmetic skills at three timepoints during the kindergarten year, and their parents reported the frequency of parent-child numeracy activities. Main results from random-intercept cross-lagged panel models showed that, at the within-family level, earlier basic teaching activities uniquely predicted subsequent basic number processing, while both advanced teaching activities and number game activities at earlier timepoints predicted the following arithmetic skills. These results indicated a unidirectional effect from home numeracy practices on early mathematical skills during the early years.

Memoria de trabajo y planificación como predictores de las competencias matemáticas tempranas

Introducción: La relación entre funciones ejecutivas y habilidades matemáticas ha sido ampliamente estudiada. Sin embargo, no existe consenso respecto de la contribución específica de la memoria de trabajo y la planificación en el desarrollo de competencias matemáticas tempranas. El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar la capacidad predictiva de estos dos dominios ejecutivos sobre las competencias matemáticas de preescolares. Método: Se implementó un diseño no experimental ex post facto, con una muestra de 104 niños/as chilenos/as. La evaluación de sus funciones ejecutivas se realizó con la tarea "inversión de números" de la Batería IV Woodcock-Muñoz para evaluar la memoria de trabajo verbal, la subprueba "Torpo, el topo torpe" del Test de Evaluación Neuropsicológica Infantil (TENI) para evaluar la memoria de trabajo visoespacial y el Test de Laberintos de Porteus para evaluar la planificación. Con el fin de evaluar las habilidades matemáticas se utilizó el Test de Evaluación Matemática Temprana Utrecht (TEMT-U), versión chilena. Se realizaron análisis descriptivos, correlaciones y modelos de regresión múltiple. Resultados: La memoria de trabajo verbal seguida por la memoria de trabajo visoespacial y la planificación fueron los mejores predictores de las competencias matemáticas de los/as niños/as. Conclusiones: Estos resultados sugieren que estas funciones ejecutivas desempeñan un papel clave en el aprendizaje de las matemáticas y aportan información específica a las/os educadoras/es para que puedan planificar sus estrategias de enseñanza en función de las demandas cognitivas que requiere cada habilidad matemática, lo que puede ser una vía potencial para promover mejores logros de aprendizaje en esta importante disciplina.

Introduction: The relationship between executive functions and mathematical skills has been extensively studied. However, there is no consensus regarding the specific contribution of working memory and planning in the development of early mathematical skills. The aim of this study was to determine the predictive capacity of these two executive domains on preschoolers' mathematical skills. Method: A non-experimental ex post facto design was implemented with a sample of 104 Chilean children. The evaluation of their executive functions was performed with the "number inversion" task of the Woodcock-Muñoz IV Battery to assess verbal working memory, the "Clumsy Mole the Clumsy Mole" subtest of the TENI Child Neuropsychological Evaluation Test to assess visuospatial working memory, and the Porteus Maze Test to assess planning. To assess mathematical skills, the Test de Evaluación Matemática Temprana Utretch TEMT-U, Chilean version, was used. Descriptive analyses, correlations and multiple regression models were performed. Results: Verbal working memory followed by visuospatial working memory and planning were the best predictors of children's mathematical skills. Conclusions: These results suggest that these executive functions play a key role in mathematics learning and provide specific information to educators so that they can plan their teaching strategies according to the cognitive demands required by each mathematical skill, which may be a potential way to promote better learning achievements in this important discipline.

Mathematical skills of 11-year-old children born very preterm and full-term.

Preterm birth affects the academic development of children, especially in mathematics. Remarkably, only a few studies have measured specific effects of preterm birth on mathematical skills in primary school. The aim of this study was to compare 11-year-old children, with an IQ above 70, born very preterm (N = 64) and full-term (N = 72) on a variety of 5th grade mathematical skills and cognitive abilities important for mathematical learning. The measures were spontaneous focusing on numerosity (SFON), spontaneous focusing on quantitative relations (SFOR), arithmetic fluency, mathematics achievement, number line estimation, rational number magnitude knowledge, mathematics motivation, reading skills, visuospatial processing, executive functions, and naming speed. The children born very preterm and full-term differed in arithmetic fluency, SFON and SFOR. Domain general cognitive abilities did not fully explain the group differences in SFON and SFOR. Retrospective comparisons of the samples at the age of five years showed large group differences in early mathematical skills and cognitive abilities. Despite lower early mathematical skills, the children born very preterm reached peer equivalent performance in many mathematical skills by the age of 11 years. Nevertheless, they appear less likely to focus on implicit mathematical features in their everyday life.

Everyone Can Implement Eduball in Physical Education to Develop Cognitive and Motor Skills in Primary School Students.

Studies suggest that incorporating core academic subjects into physical education (PE) stimulates the development of both motor and cognitive skills in primary school students. For example, several experiments show that children's participation in Eduball, i.e., a method that uses educational balls with printed letters, numbers, and other signs, improves their physical fitness while simultaneously developing their mathematical and language skills. However, the question of who should conduct such classes to make them most effective (regular classroom teachers, physical education teachers, or maybe both in cooperation?) remains unanswered. Here, we replicated a previous Eduball experiment, but now, instead of one experimental group, there were three. In the first, Eduball-classes were conducted by the classroom teacher, in the second, by the physical education teacher, and in the third, collaboratively. After one year intervention, all experimental groups significantly improved both their cognitive (mathematical, reading, and writing) and gross motor (locomotor and object control) skills, and these effects were larger than in the control group participating in traditional PE. Importantly, there were no differences in progression between the Eduball-groups. Thus, our study demonstrates that methods linking PE with cognitive tasks can be effectively used by both PE specialists and general classroom teachers.

The role of neurological soft signs in different mathematical skills in second and third grade children.

Neurological soft signs (NSSs) are subtle motor and sensory deficits, and are associated with poor cognitive abilities. Although cognitive ability has been found to be a significant predictor for academic performance in children, it remains unclear whether NSSs could contribute to academic abilities such as mathematical skills, and its contribution varies according to grade level. Therefore, in this cross-sectional study, we examined the relationships between NSSs and different mathematical skills (calculation fluency, numerical operations, and mathematical problem-solving) in 105 Chinese children (Mean age = 7.76 years, SD age = 0.67 years; 52 from second grade, 53 from third grade; 56 boys and 49 girls) recruited from a primary public school located in Shanghai. The results of regression analyses revealed that NSSs significantly predicted calculation fluency (ß = -.32, p < .050), numerical operations (ß = -.38, p < .050), and mathematical problem-solving (ß = -0.40, p < .010) in second but not third grade, even controlling for cognitive processes. Our results implicate that NSSs could be a potential predictor for mathematical skills in the early years of primary school.

Examining the relations between spatial skills and mathematical performance: A meta-analysis.

Much recent research has focused on the relation between spatial skills and mathematical skills, which has resulted in widely reported links between these two skill sets. However, the magnitude of this relation is unclear. Furthermore, it is of interest whether this relation differs in size based on key demographic variables, such as gender and grade-level, and the extent to which this relation can be accounted for by shared domain-general reasoning skills across the two domains. Here we present the results of two meta-analytic studies synthesizing the findings from 45 articles to identify the magnitude of the relation, as well as potential moderators and mediators. The first meta-analysis employed correlated and hierarchical effects meta-regression models to examine the magnitude of the relation between spatial and mathematical skills, and to understand the effect of gender and grade-level on the association. The second meta-analysis employed meta-analytic structural equation modeling to determine how domain-general reasoning skills, specifically fluid reasoning and verbal skills, influence the relationship. Results revealed a positive moderate association between spatial and mathematical skills (r = .36, robust standard error = 0.035, τ2 = 0.039). However, no significant effect of gender or grade-level on the association was found. Additionally, we found that fluid reasoning and verbal skills mediated the relationship between spatial skills and mathematical skills, but a unique relation between the spatial and mathematical skills remained. Implications of these findings include advancing our understanding for how to leverage and bolster students' spatial skills as a mechanism for improving mathematical outcomes.

Absolute and Relative Judgment Accuracy: Early Childhood Teachers' Competence to Evaluate Children's Mathematical Skills.

This study examined absolute and relative judgment accuracies of German early childhood (EC) teachers with respect to the mathematical skills of the children under their supervision. The two types of judgment accuracies are crucial prerequisites for pacing activities in EC education and offering differentiated educational activities adapted to individual skill levels of children. Data from 39 EC teachers and 268 children were analyzed using multilevel modeling. Teachers rated the skills of children on a structured observation instrument ("Kinder Diagnose Tool," KiDiT). Children were assessed on their mathematical skills with a standardized test ("Mathematische Basiskompetenzen im Kindesalter," MBK-0). On average, 65% of the variation in judgments of teachers on the KiDiT could be explained by MBK-0 scores of children, which suggest that teachers are-on average-able to rank children within their groups. Teachers were also able to judge the mathematical level of skills of children as assessed by the MBK-0. Neither mathematical content knowledge (MCK) of teachers nor their mathematics pedagogical content knowledge (MPCK) or general pedagogical knowledge (GPK) moderated the relationship between judgments of teachers and test scores of children or the relationship between the level of the judgments and the level of test scores. Conclusions for future research and practice are drawn.

Identifying childhood movement profiles and comparing differences in mathematical skills between clusters: A latent profile analysis.

The aims of this study were; 1) to identify different movement profiles in sixth graders, and 2) to investigate if there are differences in their mathematical basic (BasicMath) and problem solving (ProbSol) skills between existing movement profiles. The sample included 461 (223 girls, 238 boys) students with a mean age of 11.27 ± .32 years from southern and middle Finland. A latent profile analysis (LPA) revealed four movement profiles: "poor movers", "average movers", "skilled movers" and "expert movers". These profiles differed substantially in their motor competence (MC) and health-related fitness (HRF). A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) also revealed that "poor movers" and "average movers" obtained lower results in BasicMath comparing with "skilled movers". The results of this study suggest that cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness, MC and BasicMath are interrelated.

Two Dyscalculia Subtypes With Similar, Low Comorbidity Profiles: A Mixture Model Analysis.

Several studies have aimed to identify subtypes of dyscalculia. In many of these studies, either pre-defined groups (e.g., children with reading and mathematical difficulties vs. children with isolated mathematical difficulties) were analyzed regarding their cognitive profiles (top-down approach), or clusters of children with dyscalculia (CwD) were identified based on a narrow range of cognitive and mathematical skills (data-driven or bottom-up approach). However, it has remained difficult to establish robust subtypes of dyscalculia across studies. Against this background, we conducted a mixture model analysis in order to explore and identify subtypes of dyscalculia based on a broad range of variables (intelligence, reading fluency, working memory, attention, and various mathematical skills). The total sample comprised 174 elementary school CwD (IQ > 70; mathematical abilities: percentile rank <10), which consisted of two subsamples. The first subsample was based on a diagnostic test focusing on calculation (HRT 1-4; n = 71; 46 girls, 25 boys; age: M = 9.28 years, SD = 0.94) whereas the second subsample was based on a diagnostic test with a strong focus on basic numerical capacities (ZAREKI-R; n = 103; 78 girls, 25 boys; age: M = 8.94 years, SD = 1.05). Results provided convincing evidence for the existence of two subtypes in CwD: A slightly impaired subtype and a strongly impaired subtype. Subtypes differed most strongly regarding mathematical abilities, but the analyses suggest that differences in attention could also be a key factor. Therefore, comorbid attention difficulties seem to be a relevant factor that needs to be considered when establishing subtypes. Substantial intelligence differences between dyscalculia subtypes could not be found. Differences in working memory and reading fluency were negligible. Overall, the results seemed to be robust regardless of the diagnostic test used for assessing dyscalculia. When planning interventions for CwD, the existence of a subtype with substantial attention problems should be kept in mind.

The Moderating Role of Mathematical Skill Level when Using Curricular Methods to Learn Multiplication Tables / El papel moderador del nivel de habilidad matemática al emplear métodos curriculares para la enseñanza de las tablas de multiplicación

The present study explores the effect of two instructional methods for children with different levels of mathematical skills. One of these methods uses a conventional approach to learning multiplication and emphasizes the memorization of all arithmetic facts, whereas the other method is based on psychological principles and combines: a) the memorization of a small subset of problems aided by color cues and a portable time-table, with b) the use of single-step rules. One hundred and sixty second-grade children (aged 7-8) received instruction in one of these approaches – either the conventional method or the memory and rules method (M&R) – over the course of 6 months as part of their normal school education. Moderation analysis revealed that children with poor mathematical skills in the conventional group scored significantly better than their counterparts in the M&R group, whereas a significant advantage was observed in the M&R group for those children with strong mathematical skills. (AU)

El presente estudio explora el efecto de dos métodos de enseñanza de la multiplicación simple en alumnos de primaria con diferentes niveles de habilidades matemáticas. Un método se basa en el enfoque convencional para el aprendizaje de las multiplicaciones que enfatiza la memorización de todas ellas, mientras que el otro se basa en principios psicológicos y combina: a) la memorización de un pequeño subconjunto de multiplicaciones auxiliadas con claves de color y una tabla portátil con las multiplicaciones con b) el uso de reglas de un solo paso. Ciento sesenta niños y niñas de segundo de primaria (de 7 a 8 años) recibieron instrucción en uno de estos métodos, ya fuera el convencional o el método de memorización y reglas (M&R), durante 6 meses como parte de su educación escolar normal. El análisis de moderación reveló que los niños con habilidades matemáticas bajas en el grupo convencional obtuvieron puntuaciones significativamente mejores que sus pares en el grupo M&R, mientras que se observó una ventaja significativa en el grupo M&R para aquellos niños con altas habilidades matemáticas. (AU)

A randomized controlled trial on the influence of two types of exercise training vs control on visuospatial processing and mathematical skills: The role of cortisol.

While physical exercise training (PET) is undoubtedly very important for children and adolescents, there is still a lack of research dealing with the specific impact of different types of PET on cognitive and academic performance and the activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. The purpose of this study was to compare the impact of two different types of exercise training on visuospatial processing and mathematical skills in adolescents with the analysis of cortisol. We randomly assigned 135 adolescents (12-15 years of age) into three groups: coordinative exercise (CE), cardiovascular exercise (CVE), and control (CON) group. Computerized cognitive test (matching grids), mathematical skills and salivary cortisol level were evaluated before and after 10 weeks of PET (three times per week for 45 min) after school. Reaction time of the matching grids task decreased in all groups while the accuracy was better in CE comparing to control. In addition, the CE group improved the mathematical skills. The participants who improved visuospatial performance had higher mathematics scores after the intervention. However, we did't find any effect of the exercise training intervention on salivary cortisol nor on the link between cortisol and visuospatial processing. Future research should analyze the moderators that influence this link.

Probing the Relationship Between Home Numeracy and Children's Mathematical Skills: A Systematic Review.

The concept of home numeracy has been defined as parent-child interactions with numerical content. This concept started to receive increasing attention since the last decade. Most of the studies indicated that the more parents and their children engage in numerical experiences, the better children perform in mathematical tasks. However, there are also contrasting results indicating that home numeracy does not play a role or that there is a negative association between the parent-child interactions and children's mathematics performance. To shed light on these discrepancies, a systematic review searching for available articles examining the relationship between home numeracy and mathematical skills was conducted. Thirty-seven articles were retained and a p-curve analysis showed a true positive association between home numeracy and children's mathematical skills. A more qualitative investigation of the articles revealed five common findings: (1) Advanced home numeracy interactions but not basic ones are associated with children's mathematical skills. (2) Most participants in the studies were mothers, however, when both parents participated and were compared, only mothers' reports of formal home numeracy activities (i.e., explicit numeracy teaching) were linked to children's mathematical skill. (3) Formal home numeracy activities have been investigated more commonly than informal home numeracy activities (i.e., implicit numeracy teaching). (4) The number of studies that have used questionnaires to assess home numeracy is larger compared with the ones that have used observations. (5) The majority of the studies measured children's mathematical skills with comprehensive tests that index mathematical ability with one composite score rather than with specific numerical tasks. These five common findings might explain the contradictory results regarding the relationship between home numeracy and mathematical skills. Therefore, more research is necessary to draw quantitative conclusions about these five points.

Sleepiness, Neuropsychological Skills, and Scholastic Learning in Children.

Excessive daytime sleepiness is a frequent condition among children and adolescents that may lead to several and significant daytime consequences, including impaired neurocognitive skills and scholastic performance. Here, we evaluated in one hundred and ninety-one unselected primary school children, the relationship between sleepiness and a wide range of cognitive and academic skills through a standardized neuropsychological test battery. In order to assess the statistical relationship, we performed a partial least squares path modelling, a non-parametrical approach which combined a model of paths between latent variables and the coefficients between indicators and dimensions. Results were validated through the bootstrap approach and suggest that sleepiness is not associated with all cognitive and scholastic abilities, but only with those relying on verbal abilities and complex cognitive functions (i.e., reading comprehension, oral/syntactic comprehension, spelling, and mathematic skills). Our data suggest the idea that sleepiness in children is associated mostly with "higher" (mainly verbal) cognitive function(s), while the visuospatial domain was not affected.

Associations between Learning and Behavioral Difficulties in Second-Grade Children.

Learning and behavioral difficulties often emerge during the first years of primary school and are one of the most important issues of concern for families and schools. The study was aimed at investigating the co-occurrence of difficulties between academic learning and emotional-behavioral control in typically developing school children and the moderating role of sex. A sample of 640 second-grade school children participated in the study. This study used the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire to measure the emotional and behavioral difficulties and a battery of objective and standardized tests to evaluate the learning skills in children. In this sample 7% to 16% of children performed below the normal range in reading and/or arithmetic tests. Mixed models showed that children's hyperactive behaviors were positively related to both reading and math difficulties, and emotional problems correlated negatively with reading accuracy. The more children displayed behavioral difficulties, the more they were exposed to the risk of worsening reading and math performance, especially for girls. The result that among different emotional-behavioral problems within the school setting, hyperactivity behaviors and emotional difficulties are related to learning difficulties with a moderate effect of sex, needs to be taken into account in screening and prevention programs for learning difficulties in order to not disregard the complexity of the associated profiles.

Associations of 3-year-olds' block-building complexity with later spatial and mathematical skills.

Block-building skills at age 3 are related to spatial skills at age 5 and spatial skills in grade school are linked to later success in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields (Wai, Lubinski, & Benbow, 2009; Wai, Lubinski, Benbow, & Steiger, 2010). Though studies have focused on block-building behaviors and design complexity, few have examined these variables in relation to future spatial and mathematical skills or have considered how children go about copying the model in detail. This study coded 3-year-olds' (N = 102) block-building behaviors and structural complexity on 3-D trials of the Test of Spatial Assembly (TOSA; Verdine, Golinkoff, Hirsh-Pasek, & Newcombe, 2017). It explored whether individual differences in children's building behaviors and the complexity of their designs related to accuracy in copying the model block structures or their spatial and mathematical skills at ages 4 and 5. Our findings reveal that block-building behaviors were associated with concurrent and later spatial skills while structural complexity was associated with concurrent and later spatial skills as well as concurrent mathematics skills. Future work might teach children to engage in the apparently successful block-building strategies examined in this research to evaluate a potential causal mechanism.

Persistent Effects of Musical Training on Mathematical Skills of Children With Developmental Dyscalculia.

Musical training (MT) is perceived as a multi-sensory program that simultaneously integrates visual, aural, oral, and kinesthetic senses. Furthermore, MT stimulates cognitive functions in a ludic way instead of tapping straight into the traditional context of school learning, including mathematics. Nevertheless, the efficacy of MT over mathematics remains understudied, especially concerning longstanding effects. For this reason, this longitudinal study explored the impact of MT on numerical cognition and abstract visual reasoning using a double-blind and quasi-experimental design. We assessed two groups of children from primary schools, namely one with developmental dyscalculia [DD; n = 22] and another comprising typically developing children [TD; n = 22], who concomitantly underwent MT. Numerical cognition measurement was carried out at four different time points: Baseline (pre-MT assessment), mid-test (after 7 weeks of MT), post-test (after 14 weeks of MT), and follow-up (10 weeks after the end of MT). Significant interactions were found between time and group for numerical cognition performance, in which the DD group showed higher scores in number comprehension, number production at mid-test, and calculation at post-test compared to baseline. A key finding was that number production, number comprehension, and calculation effects were time-resistant for the DD group since changes remained on follow-up. Moreover, no significant differences over time were found for abstract visual reasoning for both groups. In conclusion, the findings of this study showed that MT appears to be a useful tool for compensatory remediation of DD.