A calvarial osteolytic lesion of probable vascular origin in a Maya juvenile from the Classic Period ( 250-900 CE).

OBJECTIVE: This case study evaluates a focal osteolytic lesion in the right sulcus sinus transversi of an isolated os occipitale. MATERIALS: The os occipitale is from a juvenile from the Cueva de Sangre at the Classic Period (250-900 CE) site of Dos Pilas, Guatemala METHODS: The lesion was examined macroscopically, microscopically, and radiographically. RESULTS: The oval lesion has a well-circumscribed margin, endocranial origin, and involves cortical destruction of the inner and outer tables. Subperiosteal bone reaction around the lesion is present on the ectocranial surface. Skeletal evidence of increased vascularity, diploë expansion, and perimortem fracture near the lesion are not observed. CONCLUSIONS: The lesion appears to reflect a response to the presence of an expansile process that has caused pressure erosion. The anatomical location of the lesion and the endocranial origin suggest a probable vascular anomaly, such as a vascular malformation. SIGNIFICANCE: This case study represents one of the few bioarchaeological evaluations of probable vascular anomaly in a juvenile. As such, it expands our knowledge about vascular anomalies in the past and provides a comparative and core reference for guiding future paleopathological investigations on cranial osteolytic lesions. LIMITATIONS: The skeletal assemblage is commingled and fragmentary preventing the assessment of the distribution of lesions across the skeleton. SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH: Further scrutiny of bioarchaeological collections is needed to better understand the distribution of vascular anomalies in the past.

Systematics, distribution patterns and historical biogeography of the Central America wandering spider genus Kiekie Polotow & Brescovit, 2018 (Araneae: Ctenidae).

Kiekie Polotow & Brescovit, 2018 is a Neotropical genus of Ctenidae, with most of its species occuring in Central America. In this study, we review the systematics of Kiekie and describe five new species and the unknown females of K. barrocolorado Polotow & Brescovit, 2018 and K. garifuna Polotow & Brescovit, 2018, and the unknown male of K. verbena Polotow & Brescovit, 2018. In addition, we described the female of K. montanense which was wrongly assigned as K. griswoldi Polotow & Brescovit, 2018 (both species are sympatric). We provided a modified diagnosis for previously described species based on the morphology of the newly discovered species and in situ photographs of living specimens. We inferred a molecular phylogeny using four nuclear (histone H3, 28S rRNA, 18S rRNA and ITS-2) and three mitochondrial genes (cytochrome c oxidase subunit I or COI, 12S rRNA and 16S rRNA) to test the monophyly of the genus and the evolutionary relationships of its species. Lastly, we reconstruct the historical biogeography and map diversity and endemism distributional patterns of the different species. This study increased the number of known species of Kiekie from 13 to 18, and we describe a new genus, Eldivo which is sister lineage of Kiekie. Most of the diversity and endemism of the genus Kiekie is located in the montane ecosystems of Costa Rica followed by the lowland rainforest of the Pacific side (Limon Basin). Kiekie originated in the North America Tropical region, this genus started diversifying in the Late Miocene and spread to Lower Central America and South America. In that region, Kiekie colonized independently several times the montane ecosystems corresponding to periods of uplifting of Talamanca and Central Cordilleras.

Archaeobotanical evidence supports indigenous cucurbit long-term use in the Mesoamerican Neotropics.

The squash family (Cucurbitaceae) contains some of the most important crops cultivated worldwide and has played an important ecological, economic, and cultural role for millennia. In the American tropics, squashes were among the first cultivated crop species, but little is known about how their domestication unfolded. Here, we employ direct radiocarbon dating and morphological analyses of desiccated cucurbit seeds, rinds, and stems from El Gigante Rockshelter in Honduras to reconstruct human practices of selection and cultivation of Lagenaria siceraria, Cucurbita pepo, and Cucurbita moschata. Direct radiocarbon dating indicates that humans started using Lagenaria and wild Cucurbita starting ~ 10,950 calendar years before present (cal B.P.), primarily as watertight vessels and possibly as cooking and drinking containers. A rind directly dated to 11,150-10,765 cal B.P. represents the oldest known bottle gourd in the Americas. Domesticated C. moschata subsequently appeared ~ 4035 cal B.P., followed by domesticated C. pepo ~ 2190 cal B.P. associated with increasing evidence for their use as food crops. Multivariate statistical analysis of seed size and shape show that the archaeological C. pepo assemblage exhibits significant variability, representing at least three varieties: one similar to present-day zucchini, another like present-day vegetable marrow, and a native cultivar without modern analogs. Our archaeobotanical data supports the hypothesis that Indigenous cucurbit use started in the Early Holocene, and that agricultural complexity during the Late Holocene involved selective breeding that encouraged crop diversification.

Early Colonial Diet in El Japón, Xochimilco, Mexico: Examining dietary continuity through stable isotope analysis of bone collagen and bioapatite.

OBJECTIVES: Early colonial documents from central Mesoamerica detail raising and planting of European livestock and crops alongside native ones. The extent to which Indigenous people, especially of the rural commoner class, consumed newly introduced foods is less known. This gap in knowledge is addressed through stable isotope analysis and comparison to published archaeological botanical, human, and faunal data. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Stable isotope analysis of bone collagen and bioapatite is applied to 74 skeletal samples of Indigenous human remains representing Colonial period individuals from El Japón-a farming hamlet in the Xochimilco area-to provide insight into long-term individual dietary practices in the context of a rapidly transforming Mesoamerican world. RESULTS: Carbon isotope ratios in collagen (δ13Ccollagen) average -8.10/00 VPDB (SD 0.55), while δ15N averages 8.90/00 AIR (SD 0.50). δ13Cbioapatite averages -2.90/00 VPDB (SD 0.60). Modest increase in carbon isotopic diversity is observed among more recent males from El Japón when compared to earlier males and females. DISCUSSION: Based on the isotopic results, it is estimated that the individuals of El Japón consumed maize or other C4 plants as a central source of carbohydrates. Dietary protein was largely supplied through domestic maize-fed fauna but potentially supplemented by wild terrestrial and aquatic fauna and fowl. Similarity in skeletal isotopic composition between precontact Mesoamericans from other sites and El Japón individuals of both earlier and later stratigraphy is interpreted as continuity in local diets and foodways despite potentially available European alternatives. Colonial taxation demands on preexisting agricultural regimes may have incentivized maize production, thus indirectly contributing to the maize-centered aspect of local foodways.

OBJETIVOS: Los textos de la época colonial temprana del centro de México documentan la producción de cultivos y ganado europeo a la par de los productos agropecuarios nativos. La magnitud a la cuál las comunidades indígenas consumieron estos productos se conoce con menos certeza en especial dentro de los asentamientos rurales. En este trabajo, se analiza la variabilidad de datos de isótopos estables en el sitio El Japón, Xochimilco y los resultados se comparan con respecto al sexo biológico y la cronología; así como también con datos publicados de muestras humanas y faunísticas. MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS: Se aplican los estudios de isotopos estables en colágeno y bioapatita a 74 muestras esqueléticas de El Japón de la época colonial temprana, una aldea agrícola del área de Xochimilco, con tal de abordar las practicas dietéticas en el contexto de un mundo Mesoamericano en transformación tras el contacto europeo. RESULTADOS: Los isótopos estables de carbono en colágeno (δ13Ccollagen) producen un promedio de −8.10/00 VPDB (DE 0.55), mientras tanto los isótopos estables de nitrógeno en el mismo tejido producen un promedio de 8.90/00 AIR (DE 0.50). Los isótopos estables de carbono en la bioapatita (δ13Cbioapatite) producen un promedio de −2.90/00 VPDB (DE 0.60). Se observa un incremento mínimo en la diversidad isotópica entre los individuos de sexo masculino en comparación a los individuos de sexo femenino de la etapa temprana y tardía del sitio. DISCUSIÓN: Con base en los resultados isotópicos, y con base en comparación a muestras humanas de contextos arqueológicos europeos y norteamericanos se estima que los individuos de El Japón consumieron maíz u otros cultivos tipo C4 como fuentes principales de carbohidratos. Las fuentes de proteína dietética posiblemente fueron fauna alimentada con maíz, pero también se pudieron haber suplementado con alimentos silvestres incluyendo aves silvestres, y fauna terrestre o acuática. La similitud en variación isotópica entre sitios mesoamericanos que preceden el contacto europeo y El Japón de ambas etapas (temprana y tardía) se interpretan como persistencia en fuentes de alimentación y tradiciones culinarias a pesar de las posibles alternativas europeas. Las demandas tributarias coloniales sobre la producción agrícola chinampera pudiesen haber contribuido indirectamente a la continuidad del maíz como fuente alimenticia principal.

Predicting future climate change impacts on the potential distribution of the black howler monkey (Alouatta pigra): an endangered arboreal primate.

Climate change is one of the main factors affecting biodiversity worldwide at an alarming rate. In addition to increases in global extreme weather events, melting of polar ice caps, and subsequent sea level rise, climate change might shift the geographic distribution of species. In recent years, interest in understanding the effects of climate change on species distribution has increased, including species which depend greatly on forest cover for survival, such as strictly arboreal primates. Here, we generate a series of species distribution models (SDMs) to evaluate future projections under different climate change scenarios on the distribution of the black howler monkey (Alouatta pigra), an endemic endangered primate species. Using SDMs, we assessed current and future projections of their potential distribution for three Social Economic Paths (SSPs) for the years 2030, 2050, 2070, and 2090. Specifically, we found that precipitation seasonality (BIO15, 30.8%), isothermality (BIO3, 25.4%), and mean diurnal range (BIO2, 19.7.%) are the main factors affecting A. pigra distribution. The future climate change models suggested a decrease in the potential distribution of A. pigra by projected scenarios (from - 1.23 to - 12.66%). The highly suitable area was the most affected above all in the more pessimist scenario most likely related to habitat fragmentation. Our study provides new insights into the potential future distribution and suitable habitats of Alouatta pigra. Such information could be used by local communities, governments, and non-governmental organizations for conservation planning of this primate species.

Bioanthropological analysis of human remains from the archaic and classic period discovered in Puyil cave, Mexico.

OBJECTIVES: Determine the geographic place of origin and maternal lineage of prehistoric human skeletal remains discovered in Puyil Cave, Tabasco State, Mexico, located in a region currently populated by Olmec, Zoque and Maya populations. MATERIALS AND METHODS: All specimens were radiocarbon (14C) dated (beta analytic), had dental modifications classified, and had an analysis of 13 homologous reference points conducted to evaluate artificial cranial deformation (ACD). Following DNA purification, hypervariable region I (HVR-1) of the mitogenome was amplified and Sanger sequenced. Finally, Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) was performed for total DNA. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) variants and haplogroups were determined using BioEdit 7.2 and IGV software and confirmed with MITOMASTER and WebHome softwares. RESULTS: Radiocarbon dating (14C) demonstrated that the inhabitants of Puyil Cave lived during the Archaic and Classic Periods and displayed tabular oblique and tabular mimetic ACD. These pre-Hispanic remains exhibited five mtDNA lineages: A, A2, C1, C1c and D4. Network analysis revealed a close genetic affinity between pre-Hispanic Puyil Cave inhabitants and contemporary Maya subpopulations from Mexico and Guatemala, as well as individuals from Bolivia, Brazil, the Dominican Republic, and China. CONCLUSIONS: Our results elucidate the dispersal of pre-Hispanic Olmec and Maya ancestors and suggest that ACD practices are closely related to Olmec and Maya practices. Additionally, we conclude that ACD has likely been practiced in the region since the Middle-Archaic Period.

Academic history, domains and distribution of the hot-cold system in Mexico.

BACKGROUND: The hot-cold classification system for things and concepts is widely used by many human groups in Mexico. We conducted a comprehensive review to understand the history, themes, and distribution of this system. METHODS: We analyzed publications based on field work in Mexico, considering publication date, research approach, study depth, and conceptual domains. We identified the ethnic groups that use the system and the places where they live. A map illustrates the geographic and cultural distribution of the system. RESULTS: The hot-cold system has been documented in 101 academic publications spanning almost a century, particularly for traditional medicine and food. Initially dominated by anthropological studies, ethnobotanists have increasingly contributed to the research. The hot-cold system is utilized by at least 56 indigenous ethnic groups (81% of the total) and mestizos (whose primary or sole language is Spanish) across most of Mexico. DISCUSSION: Anthropologists laid the foundation for understanding the hot-cold system, on which current ethnobotany builds. However, there are still knowledge gaps, for example on some domains (human beings, landscape) and on patterns by regions or linguistic families. The geographic and cultural distribution presented here is approximate, as group ethnicity is imprecise. CONCLUSIONS: The hot-cold system is widely applied in Mexico, although some variations exist. Further exploration of understudied domains, and variations between ethnic groups and regions, would contribute to a comprehensive explanation of this interconnected worldview.

Wild and cultivated comestible plant species in the Gulf of Mexico: phylogenetic patterns and convergence of type of use.

Cross-cultural research on edible plants might include ecological and evolutionary perspectives to understand processes behind species selection and management. With a database of approximately 500 comestible plants of the Province of the Gulf of Mexico in Mesoamerica, phylogenetic analyses are conducted to identify convergence and phylogenetic signal of type of use and significant clustering in the resulting phylogenetic trees. Analyses considered type of management (wild/managed vs. cultivated), type of use (edible, condiment, for wrapping food) and organ utilized. Elevated phylogenetic diversity and signal are expected for wild comestible taxa, indicating that people are using lineages across the angiosperm tree for food, resulting in broadness in diet and use of their regional resources. Main results are: (i) condiment species were identified in groups with an elevated phylogenetic signal; (ii) hot nodes for lineages utilized for wrapping food were found in many monocot groups as well as in epiphytes of cloud forests with leathery leaves; (iii) edible taxa were identified with the highest significant clustering restricted to certain branches in the phylogeny; (iv) wild and cultivated edible plants belong to identical lineages with replacement of species, implying that same plant groups known for their comestible benefits are substituted by species distributed in the Province and (v) wild versus cultivated lineages for condiment are different. Most food species in the Province belong to four families, namely Fabaceae, Cactaceae, Solanaceae and Asparagaceae. Analyses discovered underutilized wild species in identical clades to managed/cultivated taxa that can be studied further to identify cultivation practices. Results suggest that people are utilizing different lineages in the angiosperm tree available locally, for particular uses, like condiment or for wrapping food. Evidence can be used to study further undervalued edible species closely related to the most common food taxa as well as for bioprospection of their nutritional content.

Bioarchaeological study of ancient Teotihuacans based on complete mitochondrial genome sequences and diet isotopes.

BACKGROUND: The Teotihuacan civilisation was the largest one in ancient Mesoamerica. The Teotihuacan city was born in the north-eastern Basin of Mexico around the second century BC, reached its peak in the fourth century AD, and had cultural influence throughout Mesoamerica. At its peak, the size of the city reached more than 20 km2, and the total population is estimated to have increased from 100,000 to 200,000. However, knowledge of the genetic background of the Teotihuacan people is still limited. AIM: We aimed to determine the mitogenome sequences of the Teotihuacan human remains and compare the ancient and present Mesoamericans. In addition, we aimed to identify the food habits of ancient Teotihuacans. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: We determined the mitogenome sequences of human remains dated to 250-636 cal AD using target enrichment-coupled next generation sequencing. We also performed stable isotope analysis. RESULTS: We successfully obtained nearly full-length sequences newly unearthed from a civilian dwelling in the Teotihuacan site. Teotihuacan mitochondrial DNA was classified into the haplogroups in present and ancient Mesoamericans. In addition, Teotihuacan individuals had a diet dependent on C4 plants such as maize. CONCLUSION: Genetic diversity varied among the Teotihuacans.

Novel genomic resources contribute to the systematics of threatened arboreal deer mice of the genus Habromys Hooper & Musser, 1964 (Cricetidae, Neotominae) within a neotomine-peromyscine phylogeny.

The Crested-tailed deer mouse, Habromyslophurus, is one of seven arboreal species within the genus Habromys. Species of this genus are monotypic, relatively rare, and occur in low densities. Their geographical distribution is highly fragmented due to being restricted to montane cloud forest in Mesoamerica and they are of conservation concern. All Habromys species are endemic to Mexico, except H.lophurus, which is also distributed in Guatemala and El Salvador. In this study, we obtained and characterized the first mitogenome and several thousand nuclear ultraconserved elements (UCEs) of H.lophurus to determine its phylogenetic position within neotomine-peromyscine mice. Its mitogenome sequence (16,509 bp) is only the second complete mitogenome obtained for this poorly known genus. We also obtained the first nuclear genomic data for H.lophurus, including 3,654 UCE loci, as well as a partial mitogenome of H.simulatus (6,349 bp), and 2,186 UCE for the outgroup Holochilussciureus. Phylogenetic analyses that included our newly generated genomic data coupled with previously published data from other neotomine-peromyscine mice confirm the placement of H.lophurus, H.simulatus, and H.ixtlani within a highly supported clade. The Habromys clade was nested within a clade that also contains members of the genus Peromyscus and provides further support for the hypothesis of the paraphyly of Peromyscus. These genomic resources will contribute to future phylogenomic studies that aim to further elucidate the evolutionary history of this rare and critically endangered genus of rodents.

Assessing digital accessible botanical knowledge and priorities for exploration and discovery of plant diversity across Mesoamerica.

Digital accessible biodiversity knowledge has the potential to greatly advance botanical research and guide conservation efforts. Evaluating its shortfalls is key to understanding its limits and prioritising regions in need of renewed survey efforts. We used the Royal Botanical Gardens Kew's World Checklist of Vascular Plants to parse publicly available occurrence data downloaded from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility and quantify the spatial distribution of spatial, phylogenetic, and temporal data shortfalls across Mesoamerica. After processing 3578 777 occurrence records for 32 522 species of vascular plants across Mesoamerica, we found evidence of poor data coverage: incomplete characterisation of species diversity, old occurrence records, and low phylogenetic representation. One-third of the region showed large gaps for at least one of these dimensions (hotspots) and < 15% had adequate data coverage across dimensions. Overall, the shortfalls we identified compromise the quality of digitally available occurrence data and hamper research on spatial phylogenetics and species dynamics under anthropogenic disturbances. Our analyses identified areas of opportunity for increased efforts in data digitisation, botanical exploration, sequencing, and biodiversity monitoring. These efforts would serve to increase and rejuvenate knowledge on the geographic distribution of vascular plants in Mesoamerica.

Migration and biological continuity in central Mexico during the Classic-Epiclassic transition.

OBJECTIVES: The role of migration in the cultural development of central Mexico has long been debated. Archaeological models suggest that central Mexico likely experienced increased migration during the Epiclassic period (600-900 CE) and that migrants may have originated in northwestern Mexico. While previous biodistance analyses of Classic and Postclassic populations have come to similar conclusions, none have incorporated Epiclassic skeletal populations. This study uses multi-scalar biodistance analyses to directly evaluate archaeological Epiclassic migration models within central Mexico. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study uses finite mixture and relationship (R) matrix analyses of cervicometric tooth dimensions to reconstruct patterns of biological affinity among Classic and Epiclassic Mesoamerican populations (n = 333), including at the central Mexican Epiclassic shrine site of Non-Grid 4 where the remains of at least 180 individuals were interred. RESULTS: Estimated inter-site phenotypic distances demonstrate support for some degree of both biological continuity and extra-local gene flow within central Mexican populations during the Classic-Epiclassic transition. Furthermore, estimated phenotypic distances and finite mixture posterior probabilities indicate central Mexican Epiclassic populations were biologically diverse, originating from various source populations throughout Mesoamerica, including the Bajío region, the Malpaso Valley, and the Oaxaca Valley. DISCUSSION: Results suggest that emphasizing both local and extra-local gene flow rather than population replacement may be more appropriate to understand central Mexican population structure during the Classic-Epiclassic transition. Moreover, analyses support previous archaeological migration models positing that Epiclassic migrants into central Mexico originated in northwestern Mexico, but also find evidence of Epiclassic migrants originating from previously unanticipated locales like southern Mexico.

Mesoamerican urbanism revisited: Environmental change, adaptation, resilience, persistence, and collapse.

Urban adaptation to climate change is a global challenge requiring a broad response that can be informed by how urban societies in the past responded to environmental shocks. Yet, interdisciplinary efforts to leverage insights from the urban past have been stymied by disciplinary silos and entrenched misconceptions regarding the nature and diversity of premodern human settlements and institutions, especially in the case of prehispanic Mesoamerica. Long recognized as a distinct cultural region, prehispanic Mesoamerica was the setting for one of the world's original urbanization episodes despite the impediments to communication and resource extraction due to the lack of beasts of burden and wheeled transport, and the limited and relatively late use of metal implements. Our knowledge of prehispanic urbanism in Mesoamerica has been significantly enhanced over the past two decades due to significant advances in excavating, analyzing, and contextualizing archaeological materials. We now understand that Mesoamerican urbanism was as much a story about resilience and adaptation to environmental change as it was about collapse. Here we call for a dialogue among Mesoamerican urban archaeologists, sustainability scientists, and researchers interested in urban adaptation to climate change through a synthetic perspective on the organizational diversity of urbanism. Such a dialogue, seeking insights into what facilitates and hinders urban adaptation to environmental change, can be animated by shifting the long-held emphasis on failure and collapse to a more empirically grounded account of resilience and the factors that fostered adaptation and sustainability.

Tracing the evolutionary history of hepatitis B virus genotype H endemic to Mexico.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) spreads efficiently among all human populations worldwide. HBV is classified into ten genotypes (A to J) with their geographic distribution and clinical features. In Mexico, HBV genotype H is the leading cause of hepatitis B and has been detected in indigenous populations, suggesting that HBV genotype H may be native to Mexico. However, little is known about the evolutionary history of HBV genotype H. Thus, we aimed to determine the age of HBV genotype H in Mexico using molecular dating techniques. Ninety-two HBV sequences of the reverse transcriptase (RT) domain of the polymerase gene (~1,251 bp) were analyzed; 48 were genotype H, 43 were genotype F, and the oldest HBV sequence from America was included as the root. All sequences were aligned, and the most recent common ancestor (TMRCA) time was calculated using the Bayesian Skyline Evolutionary Analysis. Our results estimate a TMRCA for the genotype H in Mexico of 2070.9 (667.5-4489.2) years before the present (YBP). We identified four major diversification events in genotype H, named H1, H2, H3, and H4. The TMRCA of H1 was 1213.0 (253.3-2638.3) YBP, followed by H2 1175.5 (557.5-2424.2) YBP, H3 949.6 (279.3-2105.0) YBP, and H4 1230.5 (336.3, 2756.7) YBP. We estimated that genotype H diverged from its sister genotype F around 8140.8 (1867.5-18012.8) YBP. In conclusion, this study found that genotype H in Mexico has an estimated age of 2070.9 (667.5-4489.2) YBP and has experienced at least four major diversification events since then.

Phylogeography of Falagoniamexicana Sharp, 1883 (Coleoptera, Staphylinidae, Aleocharinae).

Falagoniamexicana is an aleocharine distributed from northern Mexico to Guatemala and El Salvador. It is associated with Attamexicana ants and lives within their piles of waste or external debris. The phylogeography and historical demography of 18 populations from Mexico, Guatemala, and El Salvador were studied. The data set encompasses a 472 bp fragment of the COI. Results suggest that F.mexicana was originated during Middle Pliocene (ca. 0.5 Mya), starting its diversification at the Upper Pleistocene and Holocene. Populations were recovered forming at least four main lineages, with a significant phylogeographic structure. Evidence of contemporary restricted gene flow was found among populations. The historical demography suggests that the geographic structure is due to recent physical barriers (e.g., Isthmus of Tehuantepec) rather than ancient geological events. Also, recent geological and volcanic events in the east of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt and the Sierra Madre Oriental might be responsible for the restricted gene flow among populations. Skyline-plot analyses suggested that a demographic expansion event took place at the end of the Late Quaternary glacial-interglacial cycles.

Characterizing the implementation of performance management interventions in a primary health care system: a case study of the Salud Mesoamerica Initiative in El Salvador.

Performance management (PM) reforms have been introduced in health systems worldwide to improve accountability, transparency and learning. However, gaps in evidence exist regarding the ways in which PM contributes to organizational-level outcomes. Between 2015 and 2017, the government of El Salvador and the Salud Mesoamerica Initiative (SMI) introduced team-based PM interventions in the country's primary health care (PHC) system including target setting, performance measurement, provision of feedback and in-kind incentives. The programme's evaluation showed widespread improvements in performance for community outreach and service timeliness, quality and utilization. The current study characterizes how the implementation of team-based PM interventions by SMI implementers contributed to PHC system performance improvements. We used a descriptive, single-case study design informed by a programme theory (PT). Data sources included qualitative in-depth interviews and SMI programme documents. We interviewed the members of four PHC teams (n = 13), Ministry of Health (MOH) decision makers (n = 8) and SMI officials (n = 6). Coded data were summarized, and thematic analysis was employed to identify broader categories and patterns. The outcomes chain in the PT was refined based on empirical findings that revealed the convergence of two processes: (1) increased social interactions and relationships among implementers that enhanced communication and created opportunities for social learning and (2) cyclical performance monitoring that generated novel flows of information. These processes contributed to emergent outcomes including the uptake of performance information, altruistic behaviours in service delivery and organizational learning. Through time, the cyclical nature of PM appears to have led to the spread of these behaviours beyond the teams studied here, thus contributing to system-wide effects. Findings illustrate the social nature of implementation processes and describe plausible pathways through which lower-order implementation programme effects can contribute to higher-order changes in system performance.

Multiple introgression events during the diversification history of the edible Mexican grasshopper genus Sphenarium (Orthoptera: Pyrgomorphidae).

Speciation with gene flow often leads to ambiguous phylogenetic reconstructions, reticulate patterns of relatedness and conflicting nuclear versus mitochondrial (mt) lineages. Here we employed a fragment of the COI mtDNA gene and nuclear genome-wide data (3RAD) to assess the diversification history of Sphenarium, an orthopteran genus of great economic importance in Mexico that is presumed to have experienced hybridisation events in some of its species. We carried out separate phylogenetic analyses to evaluate the existence of mito-nuclear discordance in the species relationships, and also assessed the genomic diversity and population genomic structure and investigated the existence of interspecific introgression and species limits of the taxa involved based on the nuclear dataset. The species delineation analyses discriminated all the currently recognised species, but also supported the existence of four undescribed species. The mt and nuclear topologies had four discordant species relationships that can be explained by mt introgression, where the mt haplotypes of S. purpurascens appear to have replaced those of S. purpurascens A and B, S. variabile and S. zapotecum. Moreover, our analyses supported the existence of nuclear introgression events between four species pairs that are distributed in the Sierra Madre del Sur province in southeast Mexico, with three of them occurring in the Tehuantepec Isthmus region. Our study highlights the relevance of genomic data to address the relative importance of allopatric isolation versus gene flow in speciation.

The Legacy of Infectious Disease Exposure on the Genomic Diversity of Indigenous Southern Mexicans.

To characterize host risk factors for infectious disease in Mesoamerican populations, we interrogated 857,481 SNPs assayed using the Affymetrix 6.0 genotyping array for signatures of natural selection in immune response genes. We applied three statistical tests to identify signatures of natural selection: locus-specific branch length (LSBL), the cross-population extended haplotype homozygosity (XP-EHH), and the integrated haplotype score (iHS). Each of the haplotype tests (XP-EHH and iHS) were paired with LSBL and significance was determined at the 1% level. For the paired analyses, we identified 95 statistically significant windows for XP-EHH/LSBL and 63 statistically significant windows for iHS/LSBL. Among our top immune response loci, we found evidence of recent directional selection associated with the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) signaling pathway. These findings illustrate that Mesoamerican populations' immunity has been shaped by exposure to infectious disease. As targets of selection, these variants are likely to encode phenotypes that manifest themselves physiologically and therefore may contribute to population-level variation in immune response. Our results shed light on past selective events influencing the host response to modern diseases, both pathogenic infection as well as autoimmune disorders.

Nephroprotective plant species used in traditional Mayan Medicine for renal-associated diseases.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: The prevalence of kidney disease has increased rapidly in recent years and has emerged as one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide. Natural products have been suggested as valuable nephroprotective agents due to their multi-target and synergistic effects on modulating important proteins involved in kidney injury. There is a large number of plant species that have been used traditionally for kidney-related conditions in Mesoamerican medicine by different cultural groups that could provide a valuable source of nephroprotective therapeutic candidates and could lead to potential drug discovery. AIM OF REVIEW: This review aims to provide an overview of the currently known efficacy of plant species used traditionally in Mesoamerica by Mayan groups to treat kidney-related conditions and to analyze the phytochemical, pharmacological, molecular, toxicological, and clinical evidence to contribute to public health efforts and for directing future research. METHODS: Primary sources of plant use reports for traditional kidney-related disorders in Mesoamerica were searched systematically from library catalogs, theses, and scientific databases (PubMed, Google Scholar; and Science Direct), and were filtered according to usage frequency in Mayan groups and plant endemism. The database of traditional plants was further analyzed based on associations with published reports of the phytochemical, pharmacological, molecular, toxicological, and clinical evidence. RESULTS: The most reported kidney-related conditions used traditionally in Mayan medicine involve reducing renal damage (a cultural interpretation that considers an inflammatory or infectious condition), cleaning or purifying the blood and kidney, reducing kidney pain, and eliminating kidney stones. A total of 208 plants used for kidney-related problems by 10 Mayan groups were found, representing 143 native species, where only 42 have reported pharmacological activity against kidney damage, mainly approached by in vitro and in vivo models of chemical- or drug-induced nephrotoxicity, diabetes nephropathy, and renal injury produced by hypertension. Nephroprotective effects are mainly mediated by reducing oxidative stress, inflammatory response, fibrosis mechanisms, and apoptosis in the kidney. The most common nephroprotective compounds associated with traditional Mayan medicine were flavonoids, terpenoids, and phenolic acids. The most widely studied traditional plants in terms of pharmacological evidence, bioactive compounds, and mechanisms of action, are Annona muricata L., Carica papaya L., Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam., Lantana camara L., Sechium edule (Jacq.) Sw., Tagetes erecta L., and Zea mays L. Most of the plant species with reported pharmacological activity against kidney damage were considered safe in toxicological studies. CONCLUSION: Available pharmacological reports suggest that several herbs used in traditional Mayan medicine for renal-associated diseases may have nephroprotective effects and consistent pharmacological evidence, nephroprotective compounds, and mechanisms of action in different models of kidney injury. However, more research is required to fully understand the potential of traditional Mayan medicine in drug discovery given the limited ethnobotanical studies and data available for most species with regards to identification on bioactive components, pharmacological mechanisms, and the scarce number of clinical studies.

Earliest evidence of primate captivity and translocation supports gift diplomacy between Teotihuacan and the Maya.

A multimethod archaeometry study (zooarchaeological, isotopic, ancient DNA, paleobotanical, and radiocarbon dating) of a spider monkey sacrificed in the ceremonial center of Teotihuacan, Mexico (1 to 550 CE) is interpreted as a diplomatic gift exchange with neighboring Maya. Not only does this spider monkey provide the earliest known instance of primate translocation and captivity in Mesoamerica, it helps date incipient modes of interregional diplomacy between two major powers during Early Classic Mesoamerica: Teotihuacan and the Maya. Details of human-primate interaction include age at capture and transport (before ∼3 y of age), captive duration (over 2 y), anthropogenic diet (staple was maize, though secondary resources unique to anthropogenic diet including arrowroot and chili pepper were also found), context of sacrifice (tethered and associated with complete golden eagle and an array of other statecrafts), and general site context (including presence of Maya vessels and Maya-style murals). The timing of the spider monkey's sacrifice (250 to 300 CE) and its life history suggest a reconsideration of epigraphically attested militaristic involvement of Teotihuacan at certain Maya sites. We propose that a period of more multilateral and fluid ritual exchange with Maya dignitaries preceded the Teotihuacan state's eventual ascent to prominence.