A systematic review of linguistic and metalinguistic studies in Persian-speaking individuals with intellectual disorder.

The purpose of this study is to analyze the Linguistic and Metalinguistic abilities of Persian-speaking individuals with Intellectual disorder to identify the areas and results of the research carried out in order to recognize their main linguistic features, the research gaps, and also guide future research. To this end, first, related keywords were searched and related topics were separated. Then, by reading the abstracts and, if necessary, the entire articles, the unrelated articles were removed. The articles were categorized and studied on linguistic and metalinguistic characters in four areas such as semantics, phonetics and phonology, morphology and syntax, and pragmatics. In addition, to investigate the effect of bilingualism and gender on the linguistic abilities of these individuals, the findings related to studies in the field of bilingualism and gender were examined in a separate section. From the general review of about 39 studies found, we found that in the fewest studies, the field of pragmatics was dealt with. The general results of the investigation were presented in the table of the results section in addition, in phonological studies, there was no significant difference in phonological awareness between girls and boys. In bilinguals, phonological awareness skills were related to their spelling skills.

An experiment on measuring awareness of stuttering in individuals with Down syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Awareness of stuttering is likely to depend upon the development of the metalinguistic skill to discriminate between fluent speech and stuttering and the ability to identify one's own speech as fluent or stuttered. Presently, little is known about these abilities in individuals with Down syndrome (DS). PURPOSE: This study investigates whether individuals with DS and typically developing (TD) children who stutter and who do not stutter differ in their ability to discriminate between fluent speech and stuttering. The second purpose of this study is to discover if this ability is correlated with their self-identification ability. METHOD: An experiment to investigate awareness with tasks for discrimination of stuttering and self-identification was developed. It was administered to 28 individuals (7-19 years) with DS, 17 of them stutter and 11 do not, and 20 TD children (3-10 years), 8 of them stutter and 12 do not. Skills to discriminate stuttering were compared between these groups and correlated with self-identification within these groups. The influence of stuttering severity and developmental/chronological age on their ability to discriminate was also investigated. RESULTS: The ability to discriminate does not differ significantly between the DS and TD group, but is highly influenced by developmental age. This ability correlates with self-identification but only for the TD individuals who speak fluently. CONCLUSION: The ability to discriminate matures around the age of 7 and conscious awareness may rely on this ability. Differences between the present findings and earlier studies suggest that differentiation in levels and types of awareness is warranted.

Language-Related Skills in Bilingual Children With Specific Learning Disorders.

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to better understand the characteristics of the language-related skills of bilingual children with specific learning disorders (SLD). The aim is achieved by analyzing language-related skills in a sample of bilingual (Italian plus another language) and Italian monolingual children, with and without SLD. Patients and methods: A total of 72 minors aged between 9 and 11 were recruited and divided into four groups: 18 Italian monolingual children with SLD, 18 bilingual children with SLD, 18 Italian monolingual children without SLD, and 18 bilingual children without SLD. Each child underwent tests to evaluate different aspects of language skills: lexical and grammar, metalanguage and executive functions. Results: With regard to lexical and grammatical skills, the conditions of SLD and bilingualism both impact naming in terms of total number of errors for words with low frequency of use, while the condition of SLD has an effect on semantic errors for words with low frequency of use. The condition of bilingualism impacts on the total errors for words with high frequency of use and on circumlocution-type errors for words with low frequency of use. There were significant effects of bilingualism and SLD on the metalinguistic test for understanding implicit meaning, and an impact of SLD on phonological awareness was also found. Conclusion: The results suggest that both SLD and bilingualism have an effect on some lexical skills, in particular for words with low frequency of use. Both conditions, bilingualism and SLD, seem to impact on metalinguistic abilities that depend on lexical knowledge. These findings reinforce the importance of improving understanding of the neuropsychological profile of bilingual children with SLD.

Desenvolvimento de Habilidades Metafonológicas e Aprendizagem da Leitura e da Escrita em Alunos com Síndrome de Down / Development of Metaphonological and Reading and Writing Skills in Students with Down Syndrome

RESUMO: este artigo teve como objetivo investigar os resultados produzidos pela aplicação de um programa de intervenção pedagógica que englobou o ensino do alfabeto associado ao treinamento de habilidades metafonológicas com vistas à aprendizagem da leitura e escrita. Participaram da pesquisa cinco crianças e adolescentes com Síndrome de Down, com idades entre 9 e 15 anos que estavam iniciando o processo de alfabetização. A pesquisa contou com a aplicação de pré-teste, intervenção, pós-teste 1 e pós-teste 2. No pré-teste e nos pós-testes 1 e 2 foram aplicados testes de vocabulário, consciência fonológica, prova de conhecimento de letras, e prova de leitura e de escrita de palavras e pseudopalavras. Durante a intervenção foi implementado um programa de ensino dos nomes e sons das letras, associado ao treinamento de habilidades metafonológicas com ênfase no processamento fonológico. Os resultados mostram que o ensino explícito dos nomes e sons das letras, associado ao treinamento de habilidades metafonológicas e das conexões entre fonemas e grafemas possibilitou aos alunos com Síndrome de Down a compreensão do princípio alfabético e aprendizagem da leitura e da escrita. Conclui-se que as habilidades desenvolvidas na intervenção possibilitaram, por meio da mediação fonológica, aos participantes a aprendizagem inicial da linguagem escrita.

ABSTRACT: The objective of this study was to investigate the results from the application of a pedagogical intervention program that included alphabet teaching associated with metaphonological skills aiming to promote reading and writing learning. Five children and adolescents with Down Syndrome aged 9-15 years starting the alphabetization process were included. The study included the application of a pre-test, intervention, a post-test1, and a post-test2. In the pre-test, post-test1 and post-test2, vocabulary, phonological awareness, knowledge of letters, reading and writing of words and pseudo words were evaluated. During the intervention, a program was implemented to teach the names and sounds of letters associated with the metaphonological skills training emphasizing the phonological processing. Results show that the explicit teaching of names and sounds of letters, associated with metaphological skills and connections between phonemes and graphemes enabled the students with Down Syndrome to understand the alphabetic principle and acquire initial reading and writing skills. It is concluded that the skills developed during the intervention, through phonological mediation, enabled the participants to acquire initial learning of written language.

Desenvolvimento da morfologia derivacional nos primeiros anos do ensino fundamental / Morphological awareness development in the first years of primary education

Consciência morfológica é a habilidade de refletir sobre os morfemas. Essa habilidade está relacionada à aquisição da leitura e da escrita. A maioria dos estudos nessa área foca no desenvolvimento da morfologia flexional. Menos se sabe sobre a morfologia derivacional. Este estudo verificou o desenvolvimento da morfologia derivacional. Trinta e sete crianças de primeiro e terceiro ano responderam a uma tarefa de decisão lexical que exigia que a criança julgasse um par de palavras com base na morfologia da língua portuguesa. Os resultados mostraram que as crianças de primeiro ano fizeram julgamentos ao nível de chance. As crianças de terceiro ano tiveram desempenho acima do nível de chance. No entanto, não houve diferença estatisticamente significativa entre as séries escolares. Esses resultados contradizem os usualmente encontrados na literatura. O tipo de tarefa e a natureza do sistema escolar são apontados como possíveis explicações para as diferenças nos resultados.

Morphological awareness is the ability to reflect upon a word´s morphemes. This ability is related to reading and spelling acquisition. Most studies carried out in the Portuguese language have focused on the development of flexional morphology. Less is known about derivational morphology. This study looked at the development of derivational morphology. Thirty-seven children from grades one and three were given a lexical decision task that required judging a pair of words on the basis of Portuguese language morphology. The results showed that first grade children made the judgments at random levels. Third grade children had above random performance. However, no grade effects were found for comparisons between grades. These results are different from the ones usually found in the literature. The type of task used and the nature of the school system are possible explanation for differences in performance.

Considerações metodológicas e conceituais sobre a construção de instrumentos de avaliação das habilidades metalinguísticas / Conceptual and mMethodological consideration on creating metalinguistic abilities evaluation instruments / Consideraciones metodológicas y conceptuales sobre la construcción de instrumentos de evaluación de las habilidades metalingüísticas

Habilidade metalinguística pode ser definida como a manipulação intencional da língua. Nos últimos anos muito interesse foi devotado à construção de instrumentos de avaliação das habilidades metalinguísticas por causa da sua relação causal com a alfabetização. No entanto, a construção desses instrumentos não é uma tarefa fácil e sem controvérsias. O objetivo do presente artigo é apresentar um panorama das questões conceituais e metodológicas que precisam ser consideradas na construção de instrumentos de avaliação das habilidades metalinguísticas, principalmente as que dizem respeito à definição de habilidade metalinguística, às unidades linguísticas avaliadas e às adaptações para o português de tarefas realizadas em outras línguas.(AU)

Metalinguistic abilities can be defined as the intentional manipulation of language. In recent years much interest has been devoted to creating metalinguistic awareness assessment instruments because of its causal link to literacy acquisition. However, the construction of these instruments is not an easy task and it is not without controversy. The goal of this paper is to present an overview of the conceptual and methodological issues that need to be considered when creating such instruments for assessing metalinguistic abilities, we will mainly focus on the definition of metalinguistic skill, the language units assessed and adaptations of tasks from different languages to Portuguese.(AU)

Habilidad metalingüística puede ser definida como la manipulación intencional de la lengua. En los últimos años mucho interés fue dedicado a la construcción de instrumentos de evaluación de las habilidades metalingüísticas por cuenta de su relación causal con la alfabetización. Sin embargo, la construcción de esos instrumentos no es una tarea fácil y sin controversias. El objetivo del presente trabajo es presentar un panorama de las cuestiones conceptuales y metodológicas que deben ser consideradas en la construcción de instrumentos de evaluación de las habilidades metalingüísticas, principalmente las que reportan a la definición de habilidad metalingüística, a las unidades lingüísticas evaluadas y a las adaptaciones para el portugués de tareas realizadas en otras lenguas.(AU)

Considerações metodológicas e conceituais sobre a construção de instrumentos de avaliação das habilidades metalinguísticas / Conceptual and mMethodological consideration on creating metalinguistic abilities evaluation instruments / Consideraciones metodológicas y conceptuales sobre la construcción de instrumentos de evaluación de las habilidades metalingüísticas

Habilidade metalinguística pode ser definida como a manipulação intencional da língua. Nos últimos anos muito interesse foi devotado à construção de instrumentos de avaliação das habilidades metalinguísticas por causa da sua relação causal com a alfabetização. No entanto, a construção desses instrumentos não é uma tarefa fácil e sem controvérsias. O objetivo do presente artigo é apresentar um panorama das questões conceituais e metodológicas que precisam ser consideradas na construção de instrumentos de avaliação das habilidades metalinguísticas, principalmente as que dizem respeito à definição de habilidade metalinguística, às unidades linguísticas avaliadas e às adaptações para o português de tarefas realizadas em outras línguas.

Metalinguistic abilities can be defined as the intentional manipulation of language. In recent years much interest has been devoted to creating metalinguistic awareness assessment instruments because of its causal link to literacy acquisition. However, the construction of these instruments is not an easy task and it is not without controversy. The goal of this paper is to present an overview of the conceptual and methodological issues that need to be considered when creating such instruments for assessing metalinguistic abilities, we will mainly focus on the definition of metalinguistic skill, the language units assessed and adaptations of tasks from different languages to Portuguese.

Habilidad metalingüística puede ser definida como la manipulación intencional de la lengua. En los últimos años mucho interés fue dedicado a la construcción de instrumentos de evaluación de las habilidades metalingüísticas por cuenta de su relación causal con la alfabetización. Sin embargo, la construcción de esos instrumentos no es una tarea fácil y sin controversias. El objetivo del presente trabajo es presentar un panorama de las cuestiones conceptuales y metodológicas que deben ser consideradas en la construcción de instrumentos de evaluación de las habilidades metalingüísticas, principalmente las que reportan a la definición de habilidad metalingüística, a las unidades lingüísticas evaluadas y a las adaptaciones para el portugués de tareas realizadas en otras lenguas.

Estratégias cognitivas de escrita do português do Brasil / Cognitive writing strategies in brazilian portuguese

Estudos sobre o processamento da escrita têm focado no papel do processamento fonológico na escrita; poucos estudos investigam os estágios posteriores dessa aquisição. Este estudo foi direcionado a crianças do segundo e terceiro ano do ensino fundamental que realizaram um ditado experimental composto de palavras com diferentes características ortográficas. Visou-se verificar o papel do processamento fonológico e morfológico na escrita a partir de uma análise qualitativa dos erros cometidos pelas crianças no ditado. Foi possível verificar que a maioria dos erros (mais de 80 por cento) foi de natureza fonológica. Nessa faixa etária o processamento morfológico não pareceu ser uma estratégia dominante na escrita das crianças.(AU)

Studies about writing processing have focused in the role of phonological processing in writing. Few studies investigate the later stages of this acquisition. This study was directed to second and third grade children. They had to answer an experimental writing task that was composed by words with different orthographic characteristics. The aim was to verify phonological and morphological processing in writing based on the qualitative analyses of children's spelling errors. Most of the errors (more than 80 percent) were phonological in nature. In this age group morphological processing does not seem to be a dominant strategy in writing.(AU)

Estratégias cognitivas de escrita do português do Brasil / Cognitive writing strategies in brazilian portuguese

Estudos sobre o processamento da escrita têm focado no papel do processamento fonológico na escrita; poucos estudos investigam os estágios posteriores dessa aquisição. Este estudo foi direcionado a crianças do segundo e terceiro ano do ensino fundamental que realizaram um ditado experimental composto de palavras com diferentes características ortográficas. Visou-se verificar o papel do processamento fonológico e morfológico na escrita a partir de uma análise qualitativa dos erros cometidos pelas crianças no ditado. Foi possível verificar que a maioria dos erros (mais de 80 por cento) foi de natureza fonológica. Nessa faixa etária o processamento morfológico não pareceu ser uma estratégia dominante na escrita das crianças.

Studies about writing processing have focused in the role of phonological processing in writing. Few studies investigate the later stages of this acquisition. This study was directed to second and third grade children. They had to answer an experimental writing task that was composed by words with different orthographic characteristics. The aim was to verify phonological and morphological processing in writing based on the qualitative analyses of children's spelling errors. Most of the errors (more than 80 percent) were phonological in nature. In this age group morphological processing does not seem to be a dominant strategy in writing.

Estudio de prevalência de dificultades de lectura en niños escolarizados de 7 años de Barranquilla (Colombia) / The prevalence of reading difficulties in 7-year old children in the city of Barranquilla (Colombia)

Este artículo muestra los resultados preliminares de una investigación en la que se establece el nivel de prevalencia de dificultades en la lectura en niños de siete años, pertenecientes a 4 colegios privados no bilingües de estrato socioeconómico medio alto de la ciudad de Barranquilla (Colombia). Para esta investigación se utilizaron el CEPA, WISC-R Abreviado, Evaluación Neuropsicológica Infantil (ENI). Se determinó que la prevalencia de dificultades de lectura en la población de estudio fue de 3.32%.

This article shows research preliminary results, in which the prevalence level of reading disabilities is established in 7-year old children belonging to 4 middle class private non-bilingual schools in the district of Barranquilla. The assessment tools used for this study were CEPA, Abbreviated WISC-R and ENI (Neuropsychological Children Evaluation). The reading disabilities prevalence level was determined to be, in this study, of 3.32%.

Ciência da Leitura e Alfabetização Infantil: Um enfoquemetalingüístico

A questão da alfabetização infantil é apresentada neste artigo como o grandedesafio do sistema educacional brasileiro. Para enfrentá-lo propõe-se utilizar o conhecimentoteórico gerado pela ciência cognitiva da leitura, que vem se desenvolvendo sobretudo nosúltimos 30 anos. São apresentadas algumas das evidências empíricas geradas pelaspesquisas estrangeiras e brasileiras sobre as relações entre a aquisição da linguagemescrita e o desenvolvimento de habilidades metalingüísticas. A questão dos métodos dealfabetização é tratada na perspectiva da metalinguagem. Demonstra-se a importânciadas atividades de linguagem oral voltadas para o desenvolvimento metalingüístico(AU)

The question of childhood literacy is presented in this article as the greatchallenge for the Brazilian educational system. To face this, it is proposed to make use ofthe theoretical knowledge generated by the cognitive science of reading, which has beendeveloped in the last 30 years. Some empirical evidences are presented generated fromforeign and Brazilian researches of the relations between written language acquisition andthe development of metalinguistic abilities. The question of instructional procedures forteaching literacy is approached in relation to these abilities. The importance of oral languageactivities which promote metalinguistic development are presented(AU)