Adventures in human population biology.

PIP: This article is a memoir of anthropologist Paul Baker's professional life. The introduction notes that the field of anthropology was altered by the impact of World War II when physical anthropologists provided vital information to the military. After the war, the GI bill supported the undergraduate and graduate studies of veterans, including Baker. After describing his academic training at the University of New Mexico and Harvard, Baker details his research training and field work in the desert for the US Climatic Research Laboratory and his work identifying the dead in Japan for the Quartermaster unit. Baker then traces his academic career at the Pennsylvania State University during which he directed two multidisciplinary research efforts for the International Biological Programme, one that sought to understand human adaptability at high altitude in Peru and another that studied migration and modernization in Samoa. Baker's last administrative positions were as staff consultant to the Man and the Biosphere (MAB) program and as chair of the US MAB committee. Baker retired from academic life at age 60 in 1987 and has devoted his time to reading and to helping organize professional associations in anthropology, especially those devoted to furthering internationally organized scientific efforts. Baker concludes this memoir by acknowledging the growth and development of the discipline of human population biology.^ieng

Problems in paradise: the case of Tahiti.

PIP: Tahiti, situated in the Society Islands of the South Pacific among the 130 islands in the five archipelagos of French Polynesia, has very few indigenous populations. Population growth has been rapid under the conditions of military development and increasing immigration. When nuclear testing was approved in 1966, 18,000 troops arrived as did foreign migrants seeking work. Per capita income was high for the Pacific island countries, but distribution was very uneven. The transfers of administrative systems and law resulted in the loss of lands for some, who could not adjust to a foreign system. Today urban youth are confronted with high unemployment, malnutrition, disease, and overcrowding. The once beautiful lagoons have been contaminated with sewage and pesticides from soil erosion, caused in part by the careless construction along coastal areas. The most serious health problem is irradiation caused cancers: leukemia, thyroid infection, and brain tumors. There are also high levels of miscarriages. Lagoon fish have become contaminated by the disruptions to their habitat from detonation in two atolls. On the Mangareva Islands, all 600 residents died from ciguatera fish poisoning. Anti-nuclear groups have had very little impact. Polynesian women have suffered from these conditions and from the view that women are unclean and inferior. Women do not have access to political or economic power. The first effective women's group was formed in 1975 after Tahitian women's participation in the first Pacific Women's Conference held in Suva, Fiji. Tahitian women exchanged information with other women of similar background, and valuable international contacts were made. The movement to stop nuclear testing gained momentum from these interactions, from subsequent conferences, and better press coverage at home. Knowledge of environmental issues has been hampered by language barriers and literacy. The suspension of testing in April 1992 will benefit the health of Tahitians in the long term, but loss of jobs and housing will be a difficult adjustment in the short term.^ieng

International evidence on the role of literacy in the demographic transition.

PIP: The author gathered 1965 and 1975 socioeconomic data on 71 developing countries from a variety of sources such as UNESCO and the World Bank. He applied these data to strict tests to confirm the nonlinear fertility literacy relationship. The total fertility rate (TFR) was the dependent variable. In 1975, the TFR was as low as 2.2 in Singapore and as high as 8.1 in Rwanda. The unweighted mean stood at 5.8. Independent variables included real gross domestic product/worker (earnings); ratio of female literacy over male literacy; natural logarithm of fraction of labor force engaged in agriculture, forestry, hunting, and fishing; population density; male literacy; and strength of the family planning program. The statistical regression revealed that fertility rose slightly (mean=0.25 of a child) with an initial growth in the literacy rate. In fact, it peaked when 25-50% of the adult male population were literate. As the adult male literacy rate increased to the point where almost everyone was literate, fertility fell swiftly to 2 children. These changes were stable across the board. Between 1965-1975, the male literacy rate increased from 46-57% which resulted in a reduction of .51 children in the TFR. Algeria, Nigeria, and Pakistan whose male literacy levels ranged only from 23-42% stalled at high fertility levels. Fertility decreased considerable in countries where family planning programs were valued at least 4.7, even when no significant changes occurred in literacy, earnings, density, or agricultural composition. Morocco, valued at 4, only experienced a change of -.561 whereas China, valued at 25, experienced a change of -1.506. Thus to reduce fertility, policy makers must set high literacy levels as goals recognizing, however, that fertility will 1st rise as literacy bigins its ascent. Further they should either estiablish or strengthen existing family planning programs.^ieng

Population estimates for Puerto Rico and the outlying areas: 1980 to 1987.

PIP: This report estimates the population for July 1, 1980, to 1987 for the Caribbean areas of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the US Virgin islands, the Pacific areas of American Samoa, Guam, and the commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. The components of population change for these areas for the 1980-1987 period are also presented. Some highlights of the data follow. 1) All areas except for St. Croix and Puerto Rico are growing at a rate well above that of the US (7.4% from April 1, 1980 to July 1, 1987). 2) The Virgin Islands (population 106,100 in 1987) have shown the highest growth rate (9.8%) since 1980. Growth in St. Thomas and St. John (population 53,600) account for 72% of the total Virgin Islands growth. 3) St. Thomas and St. John together have a net immigration rate of just under 1%; St. Croix (population 52,400) had a net outmigration rate of almost 10%. 4) Puerto Rico (population 3,292,000) experienced a -7.1% net outmigration, and population increase of 95,000. 5) At 23%, Guam (population 130,400) has the largest % population growth; 21% of this growth is due to net immigration. 6) All 3 areas in the Pacific grew in the 7-year period; their overall growth rate was 23%, compared with 3% in the Caribbean areas.^ieng

Estimates of the population of Puerto Rico and the outlying areas: 1980 to 1986.

PIP: This report presents estimates of the population for July 1, 1980 to 1986 for the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the US Virgin Islands, American Samoa, Guam, and The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. Census counts for 1980 are also shown for each of the areas. Components of population change for these areas for the 1980-1986 period are also shown. Most of the statistics used to prepare the area estimates were obtained from the local governments of the outlying areas. Except for Puerto Rico, all of the areas estimated are growing at a rate well above that of the US (64% from April 1, 1980 to July 1, 1986). Of the areas, Guam has exhibited the highest % of growth since 1980--19.6%. Although Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands have increased in population since 1890, both experienced population declines between 1985 and 1986. The Virgin Islands' population declined by 1.2%, from 110,800 to 109,500, while Puerto Rico's decreased by 3%, from 3,282,000 to 3,274,000.^ieng

Population explosion in the South Pacific.

PIP: The introduction of family planning in the populous Fiji Islands has lowered the birthrate from 41.8/1000 in 1959 to 35.9 in 1965. Studies of women taking oral contraceptives and wearing IUDs have shown that both methods are compatible with the Fiji women, although the author considers the IUD the most suitable method, being acceptable, cheap, safe, relatively free from side effects, and requiring only 1 act of motivation. Among the first 1000 IUD wearers, there were 36 pregnancies, 22 occurring with the IUD (Lippes loop) in place. Of the 67 users of oral contraceptives studied, there were no pregnancies among those who took the pills as directed. 2 women, who took them irregularly, got pregnant. Side effects were minimal and the withdrawal rate was low.^ieng