Lorenz Fries on the defense of Avicenna, the prince of physicians: Addressed to the medics of Germany (1530).

During the 14th century CE, a pivotal shift took place in the world of medicine as its epicenter transitioned from the Middle East to Europe. The emergence of the European Renaissance sparked skepticism regarding the significance of Avicenna's contributions to the advancement of medicine. This paper explores how the rise of secularization and the Renaissance in Europe marked significant cultural transformations, fostering the spread of literacy. These societal shifts influenced the trajectory of medical thought, and Avicenna's "Canon of Medicine" received both praise and condemnation amidst the evolving intellectual landscape. In this context, Lorenz Fries composed his "Defense of Avicenna," a testament to his profound admiration for Avicenna's legacy. This paper presents an English translation of Fries' 1530 work, and introduces Fries and Avicenna's "Canon," contextualizing Fries' defense within the broader rejection of Arab-language medical texts in the 16th century. It also explores Avicenna's influence on European medicine and anatomy during the Renaissance and highlights the enduring relevance of his contributions to the annals of science. Fries' defense underscores Avicenna's methodological acumen and emphasizes the importance of a robust theoretical foundation in medical practice. Avicenna's integration of Aristotelianism with Platonism highlighted the necessity of a rigorous method informed by theory in medical analysis. Fries' defense remains relevant today, particularly in advocating for systematic medical analysis against subjective approaches. Avicenna's medical philosophy seems nested within a larger, hopeful attempt to resolve the tensions between science or naturalism and religion or spiritualism. The rejection of Avicenna reflects broader conflicts between Aristotelian and Neoplatonic traditions, suggesting a complex interplay of secularization and theological influences in shaping medical thought during the Renaissance.

The Politicised Child During the Seventeenth-Century British Civil Wars: An Historical Perspective on Representations of Children and Trauma During Conflict.

The seventeenth-century British Civil Wars had a scale and impact to rival modern conflicts and its effects extended to children as well as adults. What might be today termed "child soldiers" were found in the armies in combat and supporting roles. Many more were witnesses to the conflict or had their lives changed by its consequences. This article is an historical case study of socio-cultural constructions of children, childhood and warfare. It aims to highlight the diverse nature of both historic and modern child experiences of warfare, and the plethora of ways that these experiences were and are understood and represented by adults. It argues that the evidence from the Civil Wars supports the scholarship of child psychologists such as Derek Summerfield that children in conflict should not always be regarded as victims but could display agency, whilst also acknowledging social, cultural, economic and political pressures. Although children in the Civil Wars may have experienced trauma, the evidence is insufficient to prove this and evidence for a contemporary concept of the psychologically damaged child as a result of conflict is ambiguous. However, what the evidence does uncover is the ways in which adults used representations of children to express their own anxieties about the Civil Wars.

Infancia y la política cultural del desarrollo en el Día Panamericano, 1930-1948 / Childhood and the Cultural Politics of Development in Pan American Day Celebrations, 1930-1948 / A infância e a política cultural do desenvolvimento no Dia do Pan-Americanismo, 1930-1948

Resumen (analítico) En este artículo se sostiene una mirada crítica a la construcción de una infancia latinoamericana imaginada desde la posición de los Estados Unidos, a través de la política cultural del panamericanismo; ello a partir de un análisis de la participación infantil hemisférica en el festejo del Día de las Américas (14 de abril) como un proyecto político-cultural de la Unión Panamericana. Por medio de un análisis de fuentes primarias a partir de los métodos de la historia cultural, se aprecia la nueva visibilidad en la esfera pública de los niños como impulsores culturales de una nueva política hemisférica construida desde Washington, D. C. La resultante construcción metafórica de una mirada (neo)colonizadora que infantilizaba a los países latinoamericanos se intensificaba cuando se movilizaba a los niños y niñas como agentes de la política exterior.

Abstract (analytical) This article takes a critical look at the construction of Latin American childhood imagined from the vantage point of the United States through the cultural politics of Pan Americanism. It analyzes children's participation in the celebrations of Pan American Day (April 14) as a political-cultural project of the Pan American Union. Through cultural historical analysis of primary sources, the article argues that children gained political visibility in the public sphere as cultural agents of a new hemispheric political initiative led by Washington, D. C. The resulting metaphorical construction of Latin America as childlike in the (neo)colonial gaze infantilized the region's inhabitants, a historical tendency that intensified when children were mobilized as agents of hemispheric diplomacy.

Resumo (analítico) Este artigo apresenta um olhar crítico sobre a construção de uma infância latino-americana imaginada a partir da posição dos Estados Unidos, por meio da política cultural do pan-americanismo, a partir de uma análise da participação infantil hemisférica na celebração do Dia das Américas (14 de abril) como projeto político-cultural da União Pan-Americana. Por meio de uma análise das fontes primárias dos métodos de história cultural, podese apreciar a nova visibilidade na esfera pública das crianças como impulsionadores culturais de uma nova política hemisférica construída a partir de Washington, D. C. A construção metafórica resultante de um olhar (neo) colonizador que infantilizou os países latino-americanos se intensificava quando as crianças eram mobilizadas como agentes de política externa.

Historical development of the anesthetic machine: from Morton to the integration of the mechanical ventilator.

The first anesthetic machines appeared following their public demonstration by Morton in 1846. These initial devices were simple inhalers based on the evaporation of the anesthetic agent. Their main problem was the loss of effectiveness with cooling. More complex inhalers were subsequently developed, in which the main difference was the possibility to provide more than one agent. Moreover, the concentration of the inhaled anesthetic was regulated for greater efficiency. At the beginning of the twentieth century, gas machines emerged, allowing the application of an anesthetic flow independent of the patient's inspiratory effort. These machines incorporated technological advances such as flow meters, carbon dioxide absorption systems and fine adjustment vaporizers. In this period, in the field of thoracic surgery, intraoperative artificial ventilation began to be employed, which helped overcome the problem of pneumothorax associated with open pleura by applying positive pressure. From the 1930s, the gas machines were fitted with a ventilator, and by the 1950s this had become a basic component of the anesthesia system. Later still, in the 1980s, alarm and monitoring systems were incorporated, giving rise to the current generation of workstations.

Contributions of Florence Nightingale as a social entrepreneur: from modern to contemporary nursing / Contribuciones de Florence Nightingale como emprendedor social: de la enfermería moderna a la contemporánea / Contribuições de florence nightingale como empreendedora social: da enfermagem moderna à contemporânea

ABSTRACT Objective: To reflect on the transformations of modern and contemporary nursing as well as on Florence Nightingale's social entrepreneurship. Method: This is a logical-reflective exhibition, with an emphasis on the theoretical assumptions of social entrepreneurship and the legacy of Florence Nightingale, from modern to contemporary nursing, based on readings of texts extracted from electronic databases, especially periodicals, books and theses. Results: The logical-reflective exhibition focuses on two fundamental aspects: 1) Florence Nightingale's legacy as a social entrepreneur; 2) The evolution of Brazilian nursing: from modernity to contemporaneity. Final considerations: Florence Nightingale's legacy is undeniable with regard to the evolution of modern and contemporary nursing and transcends different areas of knowledge. In addition to being a precursor to modern nursing, it is distinguished by its visionary attitude, humanitarian social value and potential for transforming the paths and realities present in the Contemporary Era.

RESUMEN Objetivo: Reflexionar sobre las transformaciones de la enfermería moderna y contemporánea así como sobre el espíritu empresarial social de Florence Nightingale. Método: Se trata de una exposición lógico-reflexiva, con énfasis en los presupuestos teóricos del espíritu empresarial social y del legado de Florence Nightingale, de la enfermería moderna a la contemporánea, apoyándose en las lecturas de textos extraídos en las bases de datos electrónicas, especialmente periódicos, libros y tesis. Resultados: La exposición lógico-reflexiva se centra en dos aspectos fundamentales: 1) El legado de Florence Nightingale como emprendedora social; 2) La evolución de la enfermería brasileña: de la modernidad a la contemporaneidad. Consideraciones finales: El legado de Florence Nightingale es innegable en lo que atañe a la evolución de la enfermería moderna y contemporánea y transciende las diferentes áreas del conocimiento. Además de precursora de la enfermería moderna, ella se distingue por la actitud visionaria, valor social humanitario y potencial transformador de recurridos y realidades presentes en la Era Contemporánea.

RESUMO Objetivo: Refletir sobre as transformações da enfermagem moderna e contemporânea bem como sobre o empreendedorismo social de Florence Nightingale. Método: Trata-se de uma exposição lógico-reflexiva, com ênfase nos pressupostos teóricos do empreendedorismo social e do legado de Florence Nightingale, da enfermagem moderna à contemporânea, apoiando-se em leituras de textos extraídos em bases de dados eletrônicas, especialmente periódicos, livros e teses. Resultados: A exposição lógico-reflexiva centra-se em dois aspectos fundamentais: 1) O legado de Florence Nightingale como empreendedora social; 2) A evolução da enfermagem brasileira: da modernidade à contemporaneidade. Considerações finais: O legado de Florence Nightingale é inegável no que tange à evolução da enfermagem moderna e contemporânea e transcende as diferentes áreas do conhecimento. Além de precursora da enfermagem moderna, ela se distingue pela atitude visionária, valor social humanitário e potencial transformador de percursos e realidades presentes na Era Contemporânea.

[Diagnosis and treatment of hypertension in the Republic of China].

Hypertension and its cardiovascular complications can produce many serious problems for the health of Chinese residents, therefore, affect quality of the population. About a century ago, the research and treatment of hypertension were still in primary stage. Despite the material and cultural resources were extremely limited, modern Chinese medical scientists performed blood pressure surveys of different populations in China. Besides, they carried out researches on epidemiology and mechanisms of hypertension, as well as clinical trials. At the same time, substantive pioneering work was done in medical education and the spread of popular science. A large number of textbooks on physiology or internal medicine were translated, and popular science books such as the Prevention and Treatment of Hypertension were published. These works opened the prelude to the research, prevention and treatment of hypertension in China.

[Foreign members and their researches on Chinese medical history in early Chinese Society of Medical History].

Foreign members of Chinese Society of Medical History were more than one-third in Republic of China. But they have not gotten enough attention. This paper introduces their life, and researches on history of medicine of 13 foreign members, includes B. E. Read, Edward.H.Hume, L. S. Huizenga, W. W.Cadbury, H. G.Earle, Frederick Reiss, Maxwell, J.L, W. R.Morse, C. N. Frazier, T. C.Greene, Franz Hübotter, L. G.Kilborn, H. E.Sigerist. Their researches on Chinese medical history played an important role in the western society knowing about traditional Chinese medicine and its medical culture.

Structural and temporal patterns of the first global trading market.

Little is known about the structural patterns and dynamics of the first global trading market (FGTM), which emerged during the sixteenth century as a result of the Iberian expansion, let alone how it compares to today's global financial markets. Here we build a representative network of the FGTM using information contained in 8725 (handwritten) Bills of Exchange from that time-which were (human) interpreted and digitalized into an online database. We show that the resulting temporal network exhibits a hierarchical, highly clustered and disassortative structure, with a power-law dependence on the connectivity that remains remarkably robust throughout the entire period investigated. Temporal analysis shows that, despite major turnovers in the number and nature of the links-suggesting fast adaptation in response to the geopolitical and financial turmoil experienced at the time-the overall characteristics of the FGTM remain robust and virtually unchanged. The methodology developed here demonstrates the possibility of building and analysing complex trading and finance networks originating from pre-statistical eras, enabling us to highlight the striking similarities between the structural patterns of financial networks separated by centuries in time.

The Weighing Chair of Sanctorius Sanctorius: A Replica.

In 1614, the physician Sanctorius Sanctorius (1561-1636) published his most famous work entitled Ars […] de statica medicina (On static medicine). This is a work composed of aphorisms that present the practical results of a series of weighing procedures, rather than theoretical observations. De statica medicina is the result of a large number of test series that Sanctorius carried out over many years with the weighing chair he constructed himself in order to quantify the so-called perspiratio insensibilis, an insensible perspiration of the human body. Through his weighing experiments, Sanctorius introduced the idea of quantitative research into physiology. Although historical accounts ascribe an important role to Sanctorius as the founder of a new medical science, up until now the design of his weighing chair and the method of measurement have not been closely analysed. The aim of this paper is to close this gap. Through a collaboration between the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science and the Technical University of Berlin (Institute of Vocational Education and Work Studies), Sanctorius's weighing chair was reconstructed and experiments carried out with it. This opened new perspectives on Sanctorius's work and led to a reconsideration of the function and purpose of his weighing chair. With his static medicine, Sanctorius repurposed an old instrument. The replication of the weighing chair and the repetition of the experiments demonstrate that this novel application of scales posed some challenges for the mechanical design of the instrument. We recognized that the instrument fulfilled different functions that might in turn have affected its design, precision, and the measuring method applied. Although in the end we could not clarify how Sanctorius actually conducted his measurements, we were nevertheless able to develop an understanding of Sanctorius's mechanical and practical knowledge that would not have been possible for us to develop solely on the basis of the written sources.

Young hands, old books: Drawings by children in a fourteenth-century manuscript, LJS MS. 361.

This article scrutinises three marginal drawings in LJS 361, Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Books and Manuscripts, University of Pennsylvania Libraries. It first considers the provenance of the manuscript, questioning how it got into the hands of children. Then, it combines developmental psychology with close examination of the material evidence to develop a list of criteria to attribute the drawings to children. There is consideration of the features that help us estimate the age of the artists, and which indicate that one drawing was a collaborative effort between two children. A potential relationship is identified between the doodles and the subject matter of the text, prompting questions about pre-modern child education and literacy. Finally, the article considers the implications of this finding in both codicology and social history since these marginal illustrations demonstrate that children were active in the material life of medieval books.

[The Significance of Terminology for the Idea of a Historical Period--Considerations on Frühe Neuzeit/Early Modern]. / Die Terminologie von Epochen - Überlegungen am Beispiel Frühe Neuzeit/,early modern'.

The Significance of Terminology for the Idea of a Historical Period - Considerations on Frühe Neuzeit/Early Modern. This article focuses on the relationship between the names given to historical periods and the attributed substance of that period. It argues that the possibility of a neutralisation in terms of substantive meaning depends on the terminology used to delineate a historical period. Considering the example of 'early modern history' the article sketches the usage of that term in twentieth century historiography. While it is clear that the concept cannot escape the inherent teleology of modernity succeeding pre-modern ages, the analysis shows that historians have used 'early modern' in surprisingly divers ways trying to overcome the semantic meaning of the term itself.

Historical Study of the Etymological Form and Translational Process of Gout (Tongfeng) / 의사학

This study aims to address questions regarding the translation of 'gout' into 'tongfeng' in East Asia. To this end, the formation process of the origins, 'gout' from Western medicine and 'tongfeng' from Oriental medicine, and the translational process were investigated through the relevant records and literature dating from the 16th century on. Symptoms associated with gout were originally mentioned in ancient Egypt and various terminologies were used to refer to gout, such as podagra, cheiragra and gonogra. The word 'gout', which is derived from Latin, was used for the first time in the 13th century. The reason for this linguistic alteration is thought to be the need for a comprehensive term to cover the various terms for gout in symptomatic body parts, since it can occur concurrently in many joints. However, it took hundreds of years before gout was independently established as a medical term. In oriental medicine, terms describing diseases with features similar to gout include bibing, lijiefeng, baihufeng and tongfeng. Among them, the concept of 'tongfeng' has been established since the Jin and Yuan dynasties. The cause, prevention and various treatments for tongfeng were proposed throughout the Ming and Qing dynasties. The early translation of gout and tongfeng in East Asia, respectively, is estimated to have occurred in the 18th century. The first literature translating gout in China was 'An English and Chinese Vocabulary in the Court Dialect (yinghua yunfu lijie)'. From the publication of this book until the late 19th century, gout was translated into an unfamiliar Chinese character 'Jiu feng jiao', likely because the translation was done mostly by foreign missionaries at the time, and they created a new word on the basis of Western medicine instead of researching and translating similar diseases in oriental medicine. In Japan, the first book translating gout was 'A Pocket Dictionary of the English and Japanese Language (Eiwa taiyaku shuchin jisho)', Japan's the first English-Japanese translation dictionary. In this book, gout was translated into tongfeng, a word adopted from oriental medicine. These differences from China are thought to be caused by Rangaku doctors, who, influenced by oriental medicine in the Jin and Yuan dynasties, played an important role in translating medical terminology at that time.

Crise na educação médica? Um ensaio sobre o referencial arendtiano / Crisis in medical education? An essay on Arendt's reference framework / Crisis en la educación médica? Un ensayo sobre el referencial arendtiano

Trata-se de um ensaio que contribui para o contexto de transformações na educação médica no Brasil à luz do pensamento da filósofa política Hannah Arendt. A autora faz uma leitura crítica da modernidade, apontando seu contexto de crise e quanto esta se reflete em áreas como as da educação e da política. Partindo das reflexões sobre a crise na educação, a ruptura com a tradição e a perda da autoridade, trazemos seu pensamento para uma análise sobre a prática médica e sua formação, pautadas, sobretudo, pelo modelo biomédico e outras manifestações do mundo moderno. Por fim, ressaltamos a necessidade de se trabalhar, na educação médica, com categorias como responsabilidade, julgamento e pensamento reflexivo, que foram objetos de análise da autora, já na fase final de sua vida.

This essay contributes towards the context of transformations in medical education in Brazil in the light of the thinking of the political philosopher Hannah Arendt. This author makes a critical reading of modernity, pointing out its context of crisis and how this is reflected in areas such as education and politics. Starting from reflections on the crisis in education, the breakdown of tradition and loss of authority, we use Arendt’s ideas to analyze medical practice and its training, which is guided mainly by the biomedical model and other manifestations of the modern world. Finally, we emphasize the need to include categories such as responsibility, judgment and reflective thinking in medical education, which this author analyzed in her late work.

Se trata de un ensayo que contribuye con el contexto de transformaciones en la educación médica en Brasil a la luz del pensamiento de la filósofa Hannah Arendt. La autora hace una lectura crítica de la modernidad, señalando su contexto de crisis y hasta qué punto ella se refleja en áreas como las de la educación y la política. Partiendo de las reflexiones sobre la crisis en la educación, la ruptura con la tradición y la pérdida de la autoridad, traemos su pensamiento para un análisis sobre la práctica médica y su formación, regidas principalmente por el modelo biomédico y otras manifestaciones del mundo moderno. Finalmente, subrayamos la necesidad de trabajar en la educación médica con categorías como responsabilidad, juicio y pensamiento reflexivo que fueron objetos de análisis de la autora ya en la fase final de su vida.

Sepsis, armas d fuego y microscopios: implicacones de la sepsis en las revoluuciones de la medicina de los siglos xvi y xix / Sepis, firearms and microscopes: iplications of sepsis in the meddicine revolution in the xvi and xix centuries

El dogma galénico "Pus bonum et laudabile" fue el paradigma reinante en el manejo de heridas por casi dos mil años y estimuló el uso de tratamientos que favorecían la supuración, lo cual promovió una gran cantidad de muertes en los hospicios y en los campos de batalla debido a la sepsis. En el presente trabajo se analizará, desde una mirada kuhniana, el gradual proceso del derrocamiento de dicho dogma, desde el impacto que tuvo la entrada de las armas de fuego al combate en el siglo XIV y sus implicaciones en el desarrollo de la cirugía de guerra, hasta el nacimiento de la era microbiológica en el siglo XIX. Se observará también la evolución de las técnicas quirúrgicas, desde el desbridamiento hasta la amputación, y cómo éstas tuvieron gran impacto para reducir la incidencia y mortalidad del shock traumático y del shock séptico. En este marco de referencia se analizará la profunda ruptura epistemológica que se dio gracias a la sepsis en el siglo XIX en el campo de la microbiología, además de los paulatinos avances desde el siglo XVI que permitieron el desarrollo de la cirugía moderna. De este modo, se verá cómo todos estos avances impulsados por la sepsis tuvieron un profundo impacto en el desarrollo de la medicina contemporánea.

The galenic dogma "Pus bonum et laudabile" was the dominant paradigm in wound management for nearly two thousand years and it encouraged the use of treatments that favored the suppuration, which promoted a large number of deaths in hospices and in the battle fields due to sepsis. In this work we will analyze, from a Kuhnian view, the gradual overthrowing process of this dogma, from the impact of the entry of firearms into combat in the fourteenth century and their implications for the development of war surgery, to the birth of the microbiological era in the nineteenth century. The evolution of surgical techniques from debridement to amputation, and how they had a great impact in reducing the incidence and traumatic shock and septic shock mortality, will also be observed. In this framework we will analyze the profound epistemological rupture that occurred due to sepsis in the field of microbiology during the nineteenth century, in addition to the gradual progress that since the sixteenth century have enabled the development of modern surgery. In this way, we will see how all these advancements motivated by sepsis had a profound impact on the development of contemporary medicine.