Functional roles of microbial symbionts in plant cold tolerance.

In this review, we examine the functional roles of microbial symbionts in plant tolerance to cold and freezing stresses. The impacts of symbionts on antioxidant activity, hormonal signaling and host osmotic balance are described, including the effects of the bacterial endosymbionts Burkholderia, Pseudomonas and Azospirillum on photosynthesis and the accumulation of carbohydrates such as trehalose and raffinose that improve cell osmotic regulation and plasma membrane integrity. The influence of root fungal endophytes and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on plant physiology at low temperatures, for example their effects on nutrient acquisition and the accumulation of indole-3-acetic acid and antioxidants in tissues, are also reviewed. Meta-analyses are presented showing that aspects of plant performance (shoot biomass, relative water content, sugar and proline concentrations and Fv /Fm ) are enhanced in symbiotic plants at low (-1 to 15 °C), but not at high (20-26 °C), temperatures. We discuss the implications of microbial symbionts for plant performance at low and sub-zero temperatures in the natural environment and propose future directions for research into the effects of symbionts on the cold and freezing tolerances of plants, concluding that further studies should routinely incorporate symbiotic microbes in their experimental designs.

High nitrogen contribution by Gunnera magellanica and nitrogen transfer by mycorrhizas drive an extraordinarily fast primary succession in sub-Antarctic Chile.

Chronosequences at the forefront of retreating glaciers provide information about colonization rates of bare surfaces. In the northern hemisphere, forest development can take centuries, with rates often limited by low nutrient availability. By contrast, in front of the retreating Pia Glacier (Tierra del Fuego, Chile), a Nothofagus forest is in place after only 34 yr of development, while total soil nitrogen (N) increased from near zero to 1.5%, suggesting a strong input of this nutrient. We measured N-fixation rates, carbon fluxes, leaf N and phosphorus contents and leaf δ15 N in the dominant plants, including the herb Gunnera magellanica, which is endosymbiotically associated with a cyanobacterium, in order to investigate the role of N-fixing and mycorrhizal symbionts in N-budgets during successional transition. G. magellanica presented some of the highest nitrogenase activities yet reported (potential maximal contribution of 300 kg N ha-1  yr-1 ). Foliar δ15 N results support the framework of a highly efficient N-uptake and transfer system based on mycorrhizas, with c. 80% of N taken up by the mycorrhizas potentially transferred to the host plant. Our results suggest the symbiosis of G. magellanica with cyanobacteria, and trees and shrubs with mycorrhizas, to be the key processes driving this rapid succession.

Nutrient enrichment effects on mycorrhizal fungi in an Andean tropical montane Forest.

Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) deposition are increasing worldwide largely due to increased fertilizer use and fossil fuel combustion. Most work with N and P deposition in natural ecosystems has focused on temperate, highly industrialized, regions. Tropical regions are becoming more developed, releasing large amounts of these nutrients into the atmosphere. Nutrient enrichment in nutrient-poor systems such as tropical montane forest can represent a relatively large shift in nutrient availability, especially for sensitive microorganisms such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). These symbiotic fungi are particularly critical, given their key role in ecosystem processes affecting plant community structure and function.To better understand the consequences of nutrient deposition in plant communities, a long-term nutrient addition experiment was set up in a tropical montane forest in the Andes of southern Ecuador. In this study, we investigated the impacts of 7 years of elevated N and P on AMF root colonization potential (AMF-RCP) through a greenhouse bait plant method in which we quantified root colonization. We also examined the relationship between AMF-RCP and rarefied tree diversity.After 7 years of nutrient addition, AMF-RCP was negatively correlated with soil P, positively correlated with soil N, and positively correlated with rarefied tree diversity. Our results show that AMF in this tropical montane forest are directly affected by soil N and P concentrations, but may also be indirectly impacted by shifts in rarefied tree diversity. Our research also highlights the need to fully understand the benefits and drawbacks of using different sampling methods (e.g., AMF-RCP versus direct root sampling) to robustly examine AMF-plant interactions in the future.

Diversidade de fungos micorrízicos arbusculares em pomar orgânico no semiárido cearense / Diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in an organic orchard of semi-arid land of Ceará, Brazil

The arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are key-organisms for maintenance of plant biodiversity in agroecosystems. There is an increasing interest in changes of the microbiological properties in the rhizosphere by its practical and environmental relevance. This research aimed to evaluate the occurrence of AMF in the establishment of fruits under organic management, and to compare them with an area of ​​native vegetation in semiarid Ceará. Soil samples were collected from 0-10cm layer in June, September and December 2010 in different areas. Number of spores, and diversity of AMF were quantified. The dominance of Glomus spores was confirmed in all the areas.

Os fungos micorrízicos arbusculares (FMA) são microrganismos chave na manutenção da biodiversidade de plantas em agroecossistemas e há o interesse no conhecimento sobre alterações nas propriedades microbiológicas do solo rizosférico pela sua relevância do ponto de vista prático e ecológico. Neste trabalho, objetivou-se avaliar a ocorrência de FMA na rizosfera de fruteiras em formação, sob o manejo orgânico, e compará-la com área de vegetação nativa no semiárido cearense. Amostras de solo foram coletadas da camada de 0-10cm em junho, setembro e dezembro de 2010 em áreas distintas nas linhas de plantio de fruteiras irrigadas. As amostras de solo foram submetidas a análises, em que quantificou-se o número de esporos e diversidade de FMA. A dominância de esporos do gênero Glomus foi confirmada na rizosfera das fruteiras e no solo sem interferência de plantas ou sob vegetação natural.

Diversidade de fungos micorrízicos arbusculares em pomar orgânico no semiárido cearense / Diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in an organic orchard of semi-arid land of Ceará, Brazil

Os fungos micorrízicos arbusculares (FMA) são microrganismos chave na manutenção da biodiversidade de plantas em agroecossistemas e há o interesse no conhecimento sobre alterações nas propriedades microbiológicas do solo rizosférico pela sua relevância do ponto de vista prático e ecológico. Neste trabalho, objetivou-se avaliar a ocorrência de FMA na rizosfera de fruteiras em formação, sob o manejo orgânico, e compará-la com área de vegetação nativa no semiárido cearense. Amostras de solo foram coletadas da camada de 0-10cm em junho, setembro e dezembro de 2010 em áreas distintas nas linhas de plantio de fruteiras irrigadas. As amostras de solo foram submetidas a análises, em que quantificou-se o número de esporos e diversidade de FMA. A dominância de esporos do gênero Glomus foi confirmada na rizosfera das fruteiras e no solo sem interferência de plantas ou sob vegetação natural.(AU)

The arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are keyorganisms for maintenance of plant biodiversity in agroecosystems. There is an increasing interest in changes of the microbiological properties in the rhizosphere by its practical and environmental relevance. This research aimed to evaluate the occurrence of AMF in the establishment of fruits under organic management, and to compare them with an area of native vegetation in semiarid Ceará. Soil samples were collected from 0-10cm layer in June, September and December 2010 in different areas. Number of spores, and diversity of AMF were quantified. The dominance of Glomus spores was confirmed in all the areas.(AU)

Mineral nutrition of campos rupestres plant species on contrasting nutrient-impoverished soil types.

In Brazil, the campos rupestres occur over the Brazilian shield, and are characterized by acidic nutrient-impoverished soils, which are particularly low in phosphorus (P). Despite recognition of the campos rupestres as a global biodiversity hotspot, little is known about the diversity of P-acquisition strategies and other aspects of plant mineral nutrition in this region. To explore nutrient-acquisition strategies and assess aspects of plant P nutrition, we measured leaf P and nitrogen (N) concentrations, characterized root morphology and determined the percentage arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) colonization of 50 dominant species in six communities, representing a gradient of soil P availability. Leaf manganese (Mn) concentration was measured as a proxy for carboxylate-releasing strategies. Communities on the most P-impoverished soils had the highest proportion of nonmycorrhizal (NM) species, the lowest percentage of mycorrhizal colonization, and the greatest diversity of root specializations. The large spectrum of leaf P concentration and variation in root morphologies show high functional diversity for nutritional strategies. Higher leaf Mn concentrations were observed in NM compared with AM species, indicating that carboxylate-releasing P-mobilizing strategies are likely to be present in NM species. The soils of the campos rupestres are similar to the most P-impoverished soils in the world. The prevalence of NM strategies indicates a strong global functional convergence in plant mineral nutrition strategies among severely P-impoverished ecosystems.

Recovery of degraded areas revegeted with Acacia mangium and Eucalyptus with special reference to organic matter humification

Humidified fractions of organic matter and soil microorganism populations are used as environmental quality indicators. This work aimed to study the changes in chemical and microbiological soil attributes, as well as in the humidified fractions, of the organic matter in a substrate from a clay extraction area cropped with Brachiaria mutica, Acacia mangium and Eucalyptus. In the Eucalyptus area, the P contents increased linearly with planting time. However, only at the twelfth year, differences between Eucalyptus and B. mutica areas have occurred. In the A. mangium area, such differences in the P content occurred at the third year with increment of 43%, at the 0-10 cm layer, in relation to B. mutica. Also, at the 0-10 cm layer, the total carbon contents were 98%, 78%, 70% and 40% higher than those found in Eucalyptus with three, five, twelve years of age and in the B. mutica area, respectively. Such increments also occurred in the humidified fractions, especially in the fulvic acids (C FA). The population of microorganisms was higher in the A. mangium area, mainly in the summer, where it was observed a positively correlation with total carbon (total bacteria, r = 0.96**, total fungi, r = 0.91*, and phosphate solubilizer microorganisms, r = 0.98**) and with the C FA fraction (total bacteria r = 0.96**, total fungi, r = 0.90*, and phosphate solubilizer microorganisms, r = 0.98**). The use of A. mangium led to improvements in the chemical and microbiological soil attributes in the substrate

Frações da matéria orgânica humificada e a população de microrganismos do solo são utilizadas como indicadores da qualidade ambiental. Objetivou-se verificar mudanças nos atributos químicos, microbiológicos e nas frações humificadas da matéria orgânica em substrato de cava de extração de argila com cobertura de Brachiaria mutica, Acacia mangium e Eucalyptus. Nas áreas de Eucalyptus os teores de P aumentaram linearmente em função do tempo de plantio, porém somente no décimo segundo ano diferiu da B. mutica. Na área com A. mangium tais diferenças ocorreram no terceiro ano, com incremento de 43% na camada de 0-10 cm em relação à B. mutica. Ainda, na camada de 0-10 cm os teores de carbono total foram maiores 98%, 78%, 70% e 40% em relação ao Eucalyptus com três, cinco, doze anos, e B. mutica, respectivamente. Tais incrementos também ocorreram nas frações humificadas, principalmente nos ácidos fúlvicos (C AF). A população de microrganismos foi maior na cobertura com A. mangium, acentuadamente no verão; correlacionando-se com o carbono total (bactérias totais, r = 0,96**; fungos totais, r = 0,91*; e solubilizadores de fosfato, r = 0,98**) e com a fração C AF (bactérias totais, r = 0,96**; fungos totais, r = 0,90*; e solubilizadores de fosfato, r = 0,98**). O uso da A. mangium proporcionou melhoria nos atributos químicos e microbiológicos do substrato da cava de extração de argila.

Recovery of degraded areas revegeted with Acacia mangium and Eucalyptus with special reference to organic matter humification

Humidified fractions of organic matter and soil microorganism populations are used as environmental quality indicators. This work aimed to study the changes in chemical and microbiological soil attributes, as well as in the humidified fractions, of the organic matter in a substrate from a clay extraction area cropped with Brachiaria mutica, Acacia mangium and Eucalyptus. In the Eucalyptus area, the P contents increased linearly with planting time. However, only at the twelfth year, differences between Eucalyptus and B. mutica areas have occurred. In the A. mangium area, such differences in the P content occurred at the third year with increment of 43%, at the 0-10 cm layer, in relation to B. mutica. Also, at the 0-10 cm layer, the total carbon contents were 98%, 78%, 70% and 40% higher than those found in Eucalyptus with three, five, twelve years of age and in the B. mutica area, respectively. Such increments also occurred in the humidified fractions, especially in the fulvic acids (C FA). The population of microorganisms was higher in the A. mangium area, mainly in the summer, where it was observed a positively correlation with total carbon (total bacteria, r = 0.96**, total fungi, r = 0.91*, and phosphate solubilizer microorganisms, r = 0.98**) and with the C FA fraction (total bacteria r = 0.96**, total fungi, r = 0.90*, and phosphate solubilizer microorganisms, r = 0.98**). The use of A. mangium led to improvements in the chemical and microbiological soil attributes in the substrate

Frações da matéria orgânica humificada e a população de microrganismos do solo são utilizadas como indicadores da qualidade ambiental. Objetivou-se verificar mudanças nos atributos químicos, microbiológicos e nas frações humificadas da matéria orgânica em substrato de cava de extração de argila com cobertura de Brachiaria mutica, Acacia mangium e Eucalyptus. Nas áreas de Eucalyptus os teores de P aumentaram linearmente em função do tempo de plantio, porém somente no décimo segundo ano diferiu da B. mutica. Na área com A. mangium tais diferenças ocorreram no terceiro ano, com incremento de 43% na camada de 0-10 cm em relação à B. mutica. Ainda, na camada de 0-10 cm os teores de carbono total foram maiores 98%, 78%, 70% e 40% em relação ao Eucalyptus com três, cinco, doze anos, e B. mutica, respectivamente. Tais incrementos também ocorreram nas frações humificadas, principalmente nos ácidos fúlvicos (C AF). A população de microrganismos foi maior na cobertura com A. mangium, acentuadamente no verão; correlacionando-se com o carbono total (bactérias totais, r = 0,96**; fungos totais, r = 0,91*; e solubilizadores de fosfato, r = 0,98**) e com a fração C AF (bactérias totais, r = 0,96**; fungos totais, r = 0,90*; e solubilizadores de fosfato, r = 0,98**). O uso da A. mangium proporcionou melhoria nos atributos químicos e microbiológicos do substrato da cava de extração de argila.

Micorrizas

Mycorrhizas are associations among Zigomicetes fungi and vascular plants roots. They are widespread throughout the plant kingdom over a broad ecological range. Two main groups are involved: ecto and endomycorrhizas, and a thirth type ectoendomycorrhizas because of morfoanatomical features. Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas (VAM), Glomales order, produces fungal structures (vesicles and arbuscules) inter and intracelular in the córtex region of the roots. This fungi are obligate symbionts. VAM fungi could increase plants growth with improving phosphorus, zinc and copper uptake. As a rule, the VAM fungi are strongly or wholly dependent on the higher plants, whereas the plants may or may not benefit from this association. In some instances mycorrhizas are essencial, rarely parasitic. The edaphic conditions, specially phosphorus availlability, controls the association efficiency. Non-nutritional stimulus are expected to benefit plant growth when innoculated with VAM fungi.

As micorrizas são associações entre fungos da classe Zigomicetes e raízes de plantas vasculares, ocorrendo nos mais diversos ecossistemas terrestres. De acordo com a morfoanatomia podem ser dos tipos ecto, ectoendo e endomicorrizas. Os fungos endomicorrizicos vesículo-arbusculares (fMVA), ordem Glomales, formam associações com penetração inter e intracelular das hifas e produzem estruturas fungicas (arbúsculos e vesículas) na região do córtex das raízes. São simbiontes obrigatórios. Estimulam o crescimento das plantas aumentando substancialmente a absorção de fósforo, zinco e cobre em solos com disponibilidade subótima. O caráter da associação pode ser mutualístico, neutralístico ou, raramente, parasítico, dependendo dos fatores internos, espécies de plantas e fungos, e fatores externos, principalmente os edáficos ligados a disponibilidade de fósforo. Também fatores não nutricionais estão envolvidos no estímulo ao crescimento das plantas colonizadas com fMVA.

MICORRIZAS

Mycorrhizas are associations among Zigomicetes fungi and vascular plants roots. They are widespread throughout the plant kingdom over a broad ecological range. Two main groups are involved: ecto and endomycorrhizas, and a thirth type ectoendomycorrhizas because of morfoanatomical features. Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas (VAM), Glomales order, produces fungal structures (vesicles and arbuscules) inter and intracelular in the córtex region of the roots. This fungi are obligate symbionts. VAM fungi could increase plants growth with improving phosphorus, zinc and copper uptake. As a rule, the VAM fungi are strongly or wholly dependent on the higher plants, whereas the plants may or may not benefit from this association. In some instances mycorrhizas are essencial, rarely parasitic. The edaphic conditions, specially phosphorus availlability, controls the association efficiency. Non-nutritional stimulus are expected to benefit plant growth when innoculated with VAM fungi.

As micorrizas são associações entre fungos da classe Zigomicetes e raízes de plantas vasculares, ocorrendo nos mais diversos ecossistemas terrestres. De acordo com a morfoanatomia podem ser dos tipos ecto, ectoendo e endomicorrizas. Os fungos endomicorrizicos vesículo-arbusculares (fMVA), ordem Glomales, formam associações com penetração inter e intracelular das hifas e produzem estruturas fungicas (arbúsculos e vesículas) na região do córtex das raízes. São simbiontes obrigatórios. Estimulam o crescimento das plantas aumentando substancialmente a absorção de fósforo, zinco e cobre em solos com disponibilidade subótima. O caráter da associação pode ser mutualístico, neutralístico ou, raramente, parasítico, dependendo dos fatores internos, espécies de plantas e fungos, e fatores externos, principalmente os edáficos ligados a disponibilidade de fósforo. Também fatores não nutricionais estão envolvidos no estímulo ao crescimento das plantas colonizadas com fMVA.