Aspectos de la vida y obra del Dr. Bernardo Alberto Houssay / Aspects of the life and work of Dr. Bernardo Alberto Houssay

Con motivo del Día Mundial de la Ciencia y la Tecnología, se realizó en la Casa Museo Bernardo Houssay un conversatorio en el que expertos biógrafos resaltaron algunos aspectos de la trayectoria profesional del Premio Nobel de Medicina de 1947, destacando su actividad como investigador en fisiología y sus cualidades humanas. Estos importantes estudiosos del tema compartieron sus conocimientos en un selecto auditorio. (AU)

On the occasion of World Science and Technology Day, a discussion was held at the Bernardo Houssay House Museum in which expert biographers highlighted some aspects of the professional career of the 1947 Nobel Prize in Medicine, highlighting his activity as a researcher in physiology and his human qualities. These important scholars of the subject shared their knowledge in a select audience. (AU)

Premios Nobel y cáncer / Nobel laureates and cancer

Los premios Nobel surgen en 1895 cuando Alfred Nobel firma su testamento dejando una gran parte de su riqueza a la creación de la Fundación Nobel y para el establecimiento de premios, a personas capaces de ayudar a mejorar la humanidad a través del conocimiento, la ciencia y el humanismo. Este premio se otorga en áreas, como la física, fisiología o medicina, química, literatura, paz y economía. Inició en 1901 y se mantiene hasta la actualidad, donde se han galardonado a 943 personas y 25 organizaciones. La historia y conocimientos conmemorados en los premios Nobel ha permitido un desarrollo íntegro en la comprensión, diagnóstico, terapia y progresos científicos en los diversos tipos de cáncer, sentando las bases y siendo la inspiración de miles de científicos a nivel mundial que trabajan arduamente en el área de la oncología. Estimaciones de la web GLOBOCAN indican que a nivel mundial se produjeron aproximadamente 19 millones de nuevos casos de cáncer y casi 10 millones de muertes por cáncer solo en el 2020. Este estudio tiene como objetivo revisar y reunir los principales descubrimientos científicos premiados con el Nobel en el área de la fisiología o medicina y química, que contribuyeron al conocimiento, diagnóstico y/o tratamiento oncológico desde 1901 a 2021.

The Nobel Prize originated in 1895 when Alfred Nobel signed his will, leaving a large part of his wealth to the creation of the Nobel Foundation and the establishment of this prize, with the vision that people could help improve humanity through knowledge, science, and humanism. The Nobel Prize has been awarded in areas such as physics, physiology or medicine, chemistry, literature, peace, and economics. 943 people and 25 organizations have been awarded since 1901 to this day. The history and knowledge commemorated in the Nobel Prize have allowed an integral development in the understanding, diagnosis, therapy, and scientific progress in different types of cancer, laying the foundations and being the inspiration for thousands of scientists worldwide who work hard in the area of oncology. GLOBOCAN estimates indicated that there were approximately 19 million new cancer cases globally and almost 10 million cancer deaths in 2020 alone; hence, this study reviews and brings together the main scientific discoveries awarded with the Nobel Prize in the area of physiology or medicine and chemistry, which contributed to the knowledge, diagnosis and/or treatment of cancer from 1901 to 2021.

Theodor Kocher (1841-1917) and his outstanding contributions to surgery

Theodor Kocher (1841-1917), an exceptional Swiss surgeon who described a technique for the safe removal of enlarged thyroid unraveled the true function of this endocrine gland but also made significant contributions to many other fields of surgery. Kocher was the first surgeon awarded the Nobel prize in Physiology and Medicine in 1909 for his work on the physiology, pathology, and surgery of the thyroid gland. He was professor and clinical director at Insel Hospital during 45 years. Kocher created the prominent Surgeon's School in Bern. He was the first president of the International Society of Surgery in 1903 and the founding president of the Swiss Society of Surgery in 1913.

Theodor Kocher (1841-1917), excepcional cirujano suizo que describió una técnica para la extirpación segura del agrandamiento del tiroides y desentrañó la verdadera función de esta glándula endocrina, pero también hizo importantes aportaciones a muchos otros campos de la cirugía. Kocher fue el primer cirujano galardonado con el premio Nobel de Fisiología y Medicina en 1909 por sus trabajos sobre la fisiología, patología y cirugía de la glándula tiroides. Fue profesor y director clínico del Hospital Insel durante 45 años. Kocher creó la destacada Escuela de Cirujanos de Berna. Fue el primer presidente de la Sociedad Internacional de Cirugía en 1903 y el presidente fundador de la Sociedad Suiza de Cirugía en 1913.

Milestones in the discovery of hepatitis C.

The discovery of hepatitis C has been a landmark in public health as it brought the opportunity to save millions of lives through the diagnosis, prevention and cure of the disease. The combined work of three researchers, Alter H, Houghton M and Rice C, which set the basis for the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of hepatitis C apart from laying the ground work for a new approach to study infections in general and developing new antiviral agents. This is a story of a transfusion-associated infection. A series of clinical studies demonstrated the existence of an infectious agent associated with hepatitis. That was followed by the identification of what was later known to be the hepatitis C virus (HCV) and the development of diagnostic tests. It all preceded the full molecular identification and demonstration of a causal effect. Finally it ended up with the development and discovery of a new class of therapeutic drugs, the direct acting antivirals, which are now used not only to cure the disease but most probably, to eliminate the problem. This work started with Dr Alter H who demonstrated that a new virus was responsible for the majority of post-transfusion hepatitis followed by Houghton M who cloned the virus and developed the blood test to identify those cases that carried the virus. Finally, the work of Rice C demonstrated that a cloned HCV produced after applying molecular biology techniques could cause long-standing infection and cause the same disease as the one observed in humans.

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov and Santiago Ramón y Cajal, scientists and Nobel laureates of a new century / Iván Petrovich Pavlov y Santiago Ramón y Cajal, científicos y premios Nobel de un nuevo siglo

ABSTRACT Pavlov and Cajal were two influential scientists who developed their work in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Both won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. The authors analyze the similarities between their life and work, delving into a single aspect: the Nobel prize obtained by both with only two years of difference: Pavlov in 1904 and Cajal in 1906, shared with Camilo Golgi. Both belonged to two declining empires when nationalism was still of some importance. The theories proposed by them more than 115 years ago are still valid in much of what they contributed in their respective disciplines.

RESUMEN Pavlov y Cajal fueron dos científicos influyentes que desarrollaron su trabajo a finales del siglo XIX y principios del XX. Ambos ganaron el premio Nobel de Fisiología o Medicina. Los autores analizan las similitudes entre su vida y obra, profundizando en un solo aspecto: el premio Nobel obtenido por ambos con tan solo dos años de diferencia: Pavlov en 1904 y Cajal en 1906, compartido con Camilo Golgi. Ambos pertenecían a dos imperios en decadencia, en un momento en que el nacionalismo todavía tenía cierta importancia. Las teorías propuestas por ellos, hace más de 115 años, siguen vigentes en lo fundamental de lo que aportaron en sus respectivas disciplinas.

D. Julius y A. Patapoutian. Premios Nobel de Medicina 2021, descubren nuevos canales iónicos que detectan temperatura y estímulos mecánicos / D. Julius y A. Patapoutian. 2021 Nobel Prize Awardees discover new ionic channels that detect temperature and mechanical stimuli

D. Julius was awarded the 2021 Medicine Nobel prize for the discovery of new cationic channels that detect temperatures either over 40 °C (TRPV1) or cold (TRPM8) ranging from 8-15 °C, followed by the latter identification of other channels that sense temperatures within other ranges. On the other hand, A. Patapoutian shared the 2021 Nobel prize for the independent and simultaneous co-discovery of the TRPM8 cationic channel. Furthermore, Patapoutian iden-tified piezo 1 and 2 channels previously referred to as the cell mechanosensors related to the sense of touch and proprioception. These experimental findings indicate that these novel cationic channels localized in nerve endings of the skin, mouth, lips, bronchial tree, the nephron, plus a variety of tissues transduce phy-sical stimuli into electrical activity that reach the brain sensory cortex to process these stimuli and elicit animal behavior.

La inhibición de los puntos de control inmunológico, una terapia en evolución: remembranza del Premio Nobel de Medicina 2018 / Immune checkpoint inhibitors: a breakthrough in cancer therapy

Professors James P. Allison and Tasuku Honjo were awarded with the 2018 Nobel Prize in Medicine for their contributions in cancer immunotherapy. The latter is a breakthrough in cancer therapy, aimed to overcome tumor-induced immunosuppression, leading to the reactivation of the immune system against cancer cells. Under physiological conditions, the CTLA-4 and PD-1 proteins expressed on T-cells and discovered by the awarded scientists, lead to immune tolerance. Cancer cells exploit these control points to enhance the inhibition of T-cells. The expression of PD ligands (PD-L1) in tumor cells and CTLA-4 ligands in antigen presenting cells, which bind the PD-1 receptor and CTLA-4 respectively, block anti-tumor immunity. This situation led to a biotechnological race focused on the development of effective antibodies able to "turn-on" the immune system cheated by the tumor. Anti-CTLA-4 and anti-PD-1 antibodies improve life-expectancy in cancer patients. In this review, we perform an historical overview of Professors Allison and Honjo contribution, as well as the immunological basis of this new and powerful therapeutic strategy, highlighting the clinical benefits of such intervention.

The 12 women who won the Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology: [errata] / As 12 mulheres laureadas com o Prêmio Nobel de Medicina ou Fisiologia: [errata]

Introduction: the Nobel Prize is one of the highest academic honors in the world. Since its first edition, in 1901, until 2021, there have been hundreds of winners. In the Medicine or Physiology category, chosen by the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm, Sweden, 112 awards have been given to 224 laureates, among them, only 12 (5.4%) women. Aims and source of data: with the aim of reviewing the biographies, characteristics, and peculiarities of each woman awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine or Physiology. Data were analyzed from the following sources: the Award page, websites of the institutions to which some of them have been or are affiliated, books with biographies of Nobel laureates in Medicine or Physiology, and articles in the PubMed database. Summary of findings: the average age when receiving the award was 63.4 years. The most recurrent country of origin was the United States of America, also responsible for the largest number of institutions to which the laureates were affiliated at the time of the award. The academic training of the laureates was quite diverse, ranging among medicine, chemistry, physics, biology, pharmacy, psychology and natural sciences. Five of the 12 laureates did not have children. Comments: the origins and trajectories, although plural, have points in common, such as a fascination with science since childhood and the need to overcome additional barriers throughout their education, because of their sex. Conclusion: investments on a global scale are necessary to increase equity between sexes.

Introdução: o prêmio Nobel é uma das maiores honrarias acadêmicas do mundo. Desde a sua primeira edição, em 1901, até 2021, já foram centenas de vencedores. Na categoria Medicina ou Fisiologia, escolhido pelo Instituto Karolinska em Estocolmo, na Suécia, foram entregues 111 prêmios para 224 laureados, dentre eles, apenas 12 (5,4%) mulheres. Objetivos e métodos: com o objetivo rever as biografias, características e peculiaridades, de cada mulher laureada com o prêmio Nobel de Medicina ou Fisiologia, foram analisados dados provenientes da página do prêmio; de sites das instituições às quais algumas delas foram ou são afiliadas; em livros com biografias dos laureados com o prêmio Nobel de Medicina ou Fisiologia; e artigos na base de dados PubMed. Síntese dos dados: a média de idade ao receber o prêmio foi de 63,4 anos. O país de origem mais recorrente foi os Estados Unidos da América; também é o local que abriga o maior número de instituições às quais as laureadas estavam filiadas no momento da premiação. A formação acadêmica das laureadas foi bastante diversa, variando entre: medicina, química, física, biologia, farmácia, psicologia e ciências naturais. Cinco das 12 laureadas não tiveram filhos. Conclusão: fazem-se necessários investimentos em escala global para aumentar a equidade entre os gêneros.

The 12 women who won the Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology / As 12 mulheres laureadas com o Prêmio Nobel de Medicina ou Fisiologia

Introduction: the Nobel Prize is one of the highest academic honors in the world. Since its first edition, in 1901, until 2021, there have been hundreds of winners. In the Medicine or Physiology category, chosen by the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm, Sweden, 112 awards have been given to 224 laureates, among them, only 12 (5.4%) women. Aims and source of data: with the aim of reviewing the biographies, characteristics, and peculiarities of each woman awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine or Physiology. Data were analyzed from the following sources: the Award page, websites of the institutions to which some of them have been or are affiliated, books with biographies of Nobel laureates in Medicine or Physiology, and articles in the PubMed database. Summary of findings: the average age when receiving the award was 63.4 years. The most recurrent country of origin was the United States of America, also responsible for the largest number of institutions to which the laureates were affiliated at the time of the award. The academic training of the laureates was quite diverse, ranging among medicine, chemistry, physics, biology, pharmacy, psychology and natural sciences. Five of the 12 laureates did not have children. Comments: the origins and trajectories, although plural, have points in common, such as a fascination with science since childhood and the need to overcome additional barriers throughout their education, because of their sex. Conclusion: investments on a global scale are necessary to increase equity between sexes.

Introdução: o prêmio Nobel é uma das maiores honrarias acadêmicas do mundo. Desde a sua primeira edição, em 1901, até 2021, já foram centenas de vencedores. Na categoria Medicina ou Fisiologia, escolhido pelo Instituto Karolinska em Estocolmo, na Suécia, foram entregues 111 prêmios para 224 laureados, dentre eles, apenas 12 (5,4%) mulheres. Objetivos e métodos: com o objetivo rever as biografias, características e peculiaridades, de cada mulher laureada com o prêmio Nobel de Medicina ou Fisiologia, foram analisados dados provenientes da página do prêmio; de sites das instituições às quais algumas delas foram ou são afiliadas; em livros com biografias dos laureados com o prêmio Nobel de Medicina ou Fisiologia; e artigos na base de dados PubMed. Síntese dos dados: a média de idade ao receber o prêmio foi de 63,4 anos. O país de origem mais recorrente foi os Estados Unidos da América; também é o local que abriga o maior número de instituições às quais as laureadas estavam filiadas no momento da premiação. A formação acadêmica das laureadas foi bastante diversa, variando entre: medicina, química, física, biologia, farmácia, psicologia e ciências naturais. Cinco das 12 laureadas não tiveram filhos. Conclusão: fazem-se necessários investimentos em escala global para aumentar a equidade entre os gêneros.

Great personalities of medicine, great lessons.

The analysis of three characters corresponding to different spaces and times shows the close link between literature and the history of medicine. On one hand, Don Quixote of La Mancha, who reflects the thought of the last years of the Renaissance and that has been assimilated in contemporary Mexico. On the other hand, Doctors Miguel Francisco Jiménez and Rita Levi Montalcini, who lived in the 19th and 20th centuries, respectively. Despite the years that separate these three personalities, many elements in common are observed that do not lose their validity: the value that is given to health, ethics, tenacity and experience to attain successful results. All three characters refer to the medicine of their time, their achievements and the promotion of humanism, always inherent to medicine.

El análisis de tres personajes correspondientes a espacios y tiempos diferentes muestra el estrecho vínculo entre la literatura y la historia de la medicina. Por un lado, don Quijote de la Mancha, quien refleja el pensamiento de los últimos años del Renacimiento y ha sido asimilado en el México contemporáneo. Por otro lado, los doctores Miguel Francisco Jiménez y Rita Levi Montalcini, quienes vivieron en los siglos XIX y XX, respectivamente. A pesar de los años que separan a los tres personaje, se advierten numerosos elementos en común que no pierden vigencia: el valor que se otorga a la salud, la ética, la tenacidad y la experiencia para obtener resultados exitosos, entre otros. Los tres personajes aluden a la medicina de su tiempo, los logros alcanzados y la promoción del humanismo, siempre inherente a la medicina.

Grandes personajes de la medicina, grandes lecciones / Great personalities of medicine. Great lessons

Resumen El análisis de tres personajes correspondientes a espacios y tiempos diferentes muestra el estrecho vínculo entre la literatura y la historia de la medicina. Por un lado, don Quijote de la Mancha, quien refleja el pensamiento de los últimos años del Renacimiento y ha sido asimilado en el México contemporáneo. Por otro lado, los doctores Miguel Francisco Jiménez y Rita Levi Montalcini, quienes vivieron en los siglos XIX y XX, respectivamente. A pesar de los años que separan a los tres personaje, se advierten numerosos elementos en común que no pierden vigencia: el valor que se otorga a la salud, la ética, la tenacidad y la experiencia para obtener resultados exitosos, entre otros. Los tres personajes aluden a la medicina de su tiempo, los logros alcanzados y la promoción del humanismo, siempre inherente a la medicina.

Abstract The analysis of three characters corresponding to different spaces and times shows the close link between literature and the history of medicine. On one hand, Don Quixote of La Mancha, who reflects the thought of the last years of the Renaissance and that has been assimilated in contemporary Mexico. On the other hand, Doctors Miguel Francisco Jiménez and Rita Levi Montalcini who lived in the 19th and 20th centuries, respectively. Despite the years that separate these three personalities, many elements in common are observed that do not lose their validity: the value that is given to health, ethics, tenacity and experience to attain successful results. All three characters refer to the medicine of their time, their achievements and the promotion of humanism, always inherent to medicine.

O banco de dados do Prêmio Nobel como indicador da internacionalização da ciência brasileira entre 1901 e 1966 / The Nobel Prize database as an indicator of the internationalization of Brazilian science from 1901 to 1966

Resumo O trabalho explora o potencial de análise da participação de brasileiros indicados à mais prestigiada premiação mundial em ciência, o Nobel, bem como dos brasileiros convidados para indicar candidatos à premiação, com base no banco de dados do Prêmio Nobel, cobrindo o período 1901-1966. Dezoito brasileiros foram indicados ao Prêmio Nobel, dos quais nove ao da Paz, quatro ao de Literatura, quatro ao de Fisiologia ou Medicina e um ao de Física. São comentadas as indicações dos cientistas brasileiros à premiação de Física e de Fisiologia ou Medicina e as dos nomeadores brasileiros nestas duas últimas categorias. Discute-se o processo de avaliação em ciência com base no conhecimento obtido após análise dos dados referentes à premiação do Nobel.

Abstract Working with the Nobel Prize database, covering 1901-1966, the article examines the analytical potential of the participation of Brazilians both as nominees for the world's most prestigious award in science, the Nobel Prize, and also as invited nominators. Of the 18 Brazilians nominated for the Nobel, nine were in the category Peace, four in Literature, four in Physiology or Medicine, and one in Physics. The article comments on the nominations of Brazilian scientists in the categories of Physics and Physiology or Medicine, as well as on nominations by Brazilian nominators in these same two categories. It also discusses the process of science evaluation, based on the information attained through analysis of these data on the Nobel award.

Vision and the Nobel Prize / A visão e Prêmio Nobel

ABSTRACT The Nobel Prize is the world's foremost honor for scientific advances in medicine and other areas. Founded by Alfred Nobel, the prizes have been awarded annually since 1901. We reviewed the literature on persons who have won or competed for this prize in subjects related to vision and ophthalmology. The topics were divided into vision physiology, diagnostic and therapeutic methods, disease mechanism, and miscellaneous categories. Allvar Gullstrand is the only ophthalmologist to win a Nobel Prize; he is also the only one to receive it for work in ophthalmology. Other ophthalmologists that have been nominated were Hjalmar Schiötz (tonometer), Karl Koller (topical anesthesia), and Jules Gonin (retinal detachment). Other scientists have won the prize for eye-related research: Ragnar Granit, Haldan Hartline and George Wald (chemistry and physiology of vision), and David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel (processing in the visual system). Peter Medawar is the only person born in Brazil to have won the Nobel Prize.

RESUMO O Prêmio Nobel é a principal honraria do mundo para avanços científicos em medicina e outras áreas. Fundada por Alfred Nobel, os prêmios são concedidos anualmente desde 1901. Revisamos a literatura sobre pessoas que ganharam ou competiram por esse prêmio em assuntos relacionados à visão e oftalmologia. Os tópicos foram divididos em fisiologia da visão, métodos diagnósticos e terapêuticos, mecanismo de doenças e variados. Allvar Gullstrand não é o único oftalmologista a ganhar um Nobel, porém é o único a recebê-lo por contribuições na oftalmologia. Outros oftalmologistas foram nomeados: Hjalmar Schiötz (tonometro), Karl Koller (anestesia tópica) e Jules Gonin (descolamento da retina). Outros cientistas ganharam o prêmio com pesquisas relacionadas à visão: Ragnar Granit, Haldan Hartline e George Wald (química e fisiologia da visão); David Hubel e Torsten Wiesel (processamento no sistema visual). Peter Medawar é a única pessoa que nasceu no Brasil a ganhar o prêmio.

On the centenary of the birth of Francis H. C. Crick – from physics to genetics and neuroscience / O centenário de nascimento de Francis H.C. Crick – da física para a genética e a neurociência

ABSTRACT The year 2016 marks the centenary of the birth of Francis Crick (1916–2004), who made outstanding contributions to genetics and neuroscience. In 1953, in a collaborative study, Francis Crick and James Watson discovered the DNA double helix, and in 1962 they and Maurice Wilkins were awarded the Noble Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Crick subsequently became very interested in neuroscience, particularly consciousness and its relationship to the claustrum, a small gray matter structure between the insula and putamen.

RESUMO O ano de 2016 é o centenário de nascimento de Francis Crick (1916–2004), físico, biólogo e neurocientista, cujas contribuições para a genética e a neurociência foram magníficas. Crick, em um estudo colaborativo com Watson, descobriu a estrutura molecular do DNA (dupla hélice) em 1953, e em 1962 ambos receberam o prêmio Nobel de Fisiologia ou Medicina, junto com Wilkins. Após Crick tornou-se muito interessado na área de neurociência, particularmente no estudo da consciência, e a sua relação com o claustrum, uma pequena estrutura de substância cinzenta localizada entre a ínsula e o putame.

[Tuberculosis 110 years after the Nobel Prize awarded to Koch]. / La tuberculosis a 110 años del Premio Nobel de Koch.

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1905 to Robert Koch "for his investigations and discoveries in relation to tuberculosis (TB)". He discovered the causal agent of TB, described the four principles that since then have guided research in communicable diseases and also prepared the old tuberculin, a bacillary extract that failed as a healing element but allowed the early diagnosis of TB infection and promoted the understanding of cellular immunity. After his death, the most conspicuous achievements against TB were the BCG vaccine, and the discovery of streptomycin, the antibiotic that launched the era of the effective treatment of TB. Drug-resistance soon appeared. In Argentina, studies on drug resistance began in the 60s. In the 70s, shortened anti-TB drug schemes were introduced consisting in two-month treatment with four drugs, followed by four months with two drugs. The incidence of TB decreased worldwide, but the immune depression associated with awarded together with the misuse of anti-TB drugs allowed the emergence of multidrug resistance and extensive resistance, with the emergence of nosocomial outbreaks worldwide, including Argentina. New rapid diagnostic methods based on molecular biology were developed and also new drugs, but the treatment of multidrug resistant and extensively resistant TB is still difficult and expensive. TB research has marked several milestones in medical sciences, including the monumental Koch postulates, the tuberculin skin test that laid the basis for understanding cell-mediated immunity, the first design of randomized clinical trials and the use of combined multi-drug treatments.

Santiago Ramón y Cajal, neurocientífico y pintor / Santiago Ramon y Cajal, neuroscientist and painter

La vida de este extraordinario científico y pintor ha sido motivo de estudio por generaciones, pues fascinó la manera de poder unir armoniosamente sus pasiones. Santiago Felipe Ramón y Cajal, más conocido como don Santiago Ramón y Cajal (el "don" por un título de importancia de la época e "y" como una forma de darle renombre a sus apellidos), o referido por muchos simplemente como Cajal (por la sonoridad del apellido y la costumbre en España de utilizar el apellido materno). Nació en la provincia de Cataluña, primer hijo de la unión de Justo Ramón Casasús y Antonia Cajal Puentes. Su padre, médico del pueblo, vio en él un sucesor de la profesión, razón por la cual desde muy pequeño le exigió académicamente y le reprochó su fascinación por el arte. Su infancia fue marcada por múltiples sucesos que lo llevarían a tener un encanto por la naturaleza y querer plasmarla en sus dibujos. La influencia de su padre fue exitosa, ya que se convirtió en un prestigioso médico. Ansioso de conocer otros lugares y su sed de aventurero lo llevaron a viajar a Cuba para dar apoyo médico a las tropas españolas. A su regreso se encontró con múltiples oportunidades que forjaron su carrera como científico y le dieron solidez como persona. Se casó a la edad de 27 años con Silveria Fañanás, el motor de su vida y la madre de sus seis hijos. Su incansable curiosidad y su espíritu de pintor le permitieron describir y dibujar las células nerviosas de manera detallada, incluyendo su estructura magnífica y las relaciones de estas, comparándolas de manera muy acertada con la naturaleza, referidas por él mismo como "El jardín de la neurología". Siempre fue un paisajista romántico, que se intrigó tanto de lo macro (con sus dibujos sobre la naturaleza y la anatomía), como de lo micro (la histología) (Figura 1).

The life of this extraordinary scientist and painter has been studied by multiple generations, fascinated by the way he harmoniously mixes his passions. Santiago Felipe Ramón y Cajal, better known as Don Santiago Ramón y Cajal (the "Don" as a title of the importance of the age and the "Y" as a way to give renown to their surnames) or referred by many simply as "Cajal" - by the sound of the surname). He was born in the province of Catalonia, first child of the union of Justo Ramón Casasús and Antonia Cajal. His father, a physician, saw in him a successor of the profession, which is why at very young age, he demanded of him the best academic performance and reproached him for his fascination with art. His childhood was marked by many events that would lead him to be charmed with nature and want to translate this into his drawings. The influence of his father was successful because he became a physician. Eager to know other places and with the thirst of an adventurer, he travelled to Cuba, but it was not the experience he had imagined. On his return he found many opportunities that forged his career as a scientist and gave him strength as a person. He married at the age of 27 years with Silveria Fañanás, who became the mother of his six children, and was the engine of his life. With his insatiable curiosity, his painter´s spirit and with some help, he described in detail the nerve cells and portrayed in his drawings the magnificent structure and relationships thereof, successfully comparing them with nature, referring to "The Garden of Neurology". He was always a romantic landscape painter, intrigued as much by the macro (with his drawings of nature and anatomy) as the micro (histology); the latter was his greatest passion. All his work bore many fruits, which still amaze us today. Through his hard work and his refusal to placate his inner painter, he managed to mix his passions to their maximum potential, leaving behind a priceless legacy.

Egas Moniz: twice a double life / Egas Moniz: uma dupla vida dupla

Egas Moniz is credited with the discovery in 1927 of radioarteriography, for which he was, on three occasions, nominated for the Nobel Prize, and in all three denied the award. In 1949 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine for having designed leucotomy, a brain surgery to treat some forms of severe metal disorders. He was also an successful politician and accomplished statesman.

Egas Moniz foi o inventor da radioarteriografia, em 1927. Devido a essa descoberta, seu nome foi, por três vezes, indicado para receber o Prêmio Nobel de Medicina e, nas três, não foi considerado merecedor do prêmio. Em 1949 finalmente ele recebeu o Nobel por ter concebido a leucotomia, um procedimento cirúrgico para “tratar certos transtornos mentais graves”. Ele foi, ainda, um homem político e um estadista de sucesso.

La vitamina C y algo más: Un premio Nobel poco conocido en Chile / A biographical sketch of Albert Szent-Györgyi

Albert Szent-Györgyi was a Hungarian biochemist and physiologist. He identified the structure and function of vitamin C, naming it as ascorbic acid. His research on cellular respiration and oxidation provided the basis for Krebs’ citric acid cycle. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1937. With his collaborators, he discovered the biochemical basis of muscle contractility, isolating the basic proteins, giving them the name myosin and actin. Later on, he worked on the theory of carcinogenesis, linked to electron movements. He was one of the first researchers to describe the connection between free radicals and cancer. He lived a long, very complete life, defending always his opinion and freedom.

Nobel Prizes: Contributions to Cardiology / Prêmios Nobel: Contribuições para a Cardiologia

The Nobel Prize was created by Alfred Nobel. The first prize was awarded in 1901 and Emil Adolf von Behring was the first laureate in medicine due to his research in diphtheria serum. Regarding cardiology, Nobel Prize’s history permits a global comprehension of progress in pathophysiology, diagnosis and therapeutics of various cardiac diseases in last 120 years. The objective of this study was to review the major scientific discoveries contemplated by Nobel Prizes that contributed to cardiology. In addition, we also hypothesized why Carlos Chagas, one of our most important scientists, did not win the prize in two occasions. We carried out a non-systematic review of Nobel Prize winners, selecting the main studies relevant to heart diseaseamong the laureates. In the period between 1901 and 2013, 204 researches and 104 prizes were awarded in Nobel Prize, of which 16 (15%) studies were important for cardiovascular area. There were 33 (16%) laureates, and two (6%) were women. Fourteen (42%) were American, 15 (45%) Europeans and four (13%) were from other countries. There was only one winner born in Brazil, Peter Medawar, whose career was all in England. Reviewing the history of the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine area made possible to identify which researchers and studies had contributed to advances in the diagnosis, prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Most winners were North Americans and Europeans, and male.

O Prêmio Nobel foi criado por Alfred Nobel. Os primeiros prêmios foram entregues em 1901, e o primeiro ganhador na área da medicina foi Emil Adolf von Behring, por seus trabalhos com soro antidiftérico. Na cardiologia, o conhecimento da história do Prêmio Nobel ajuda a entender a importância dos avanços fisiopatológicos, diagnósticos e terapêuticos realizados ao longo dos últimos 120 anos. O objetivo do presente estudo foi revisar as principais descobertas científicas contempladas pelo Prêmio Nobel, que contribuíram para avanços no estudo da cardiologia. Além disso, apresentamos a hipótese pela qual Carlos Chagas, um dos nossos mais importantes cientistas, não recebeu o Prêmio Nobel em duas ocasiões. A partir de uma revisão não sistemática sobre os Prêmios Nobel, foram selecionados, entre os laureados, os principais estudos com relevância para as doenças cardíacas. No período entre 1901 e 2013, 204 pesquisadores, em 104 prêmios, foram premiados na categoria Medicina ou Fisiologia, dos quais 16 estudos (15%) tiveram importância na área da cardiologia. Foram 33 (16%) premiados, sendo apenas duas (6%) mulheres. Em relação ao local de nascimento, 14 (42%) eram norte-americanos, 15 (45%) europeus e quatro (13%) de outros países. Apenas um laureado nasceu no Brasil: Peter Medawar, cuja carreira se deu toda na Inglaterra. A revisão da história do Prêmio Nobel na área de medicina ou fisiologia possibilitou identificar pesquisadores e estudos que contribuíram para avanços no diagnóstico, prevenção e tratamento das doenças cardiovasculares. A maioria dos laureados eram norte‑americanos e europeus, e do sexo masculino.

Don Santiago Felipe Ramón y Cajal y la medicina militar, vínculos con Cuba / Don Santiago Felipe Ramon y Cajal and the military medicine, links with Cuba

El médico español Don Santiago Felipe Ramón y Cajal participó en el ejercicio de la medicina militar durante la Guerra de los Diez Años de Cuba, en los hospitales de Vista Hermosa y San Isidro en Puerto Príncipe (actual provincia de Camagüey), como capitán médico de campaña. Durante su estadía, entre 1874 y 1875, enfermó de disentería y paludismo por lo que solicitó la licencia para abandonar Cuba, la cual fue otorgada el 30 de mayo de 1875, tras ser diagnosticado de caquexia palúdica grave y declarado inutilizado en campaña. Los ahorros de su desventurada estancia en Cuba fueron las bases financieras que le permitieron iniciar sus investigaciones histológicas. Se han realizado varios homenajes sobre la repercusión de la figura de Cajal en la Histología y las Neurociencias en Cuba. El objetivo del artículo es describir la estancia de Cajal en Cuba como médico militar, así como los vínculos actuales en la isla, que transitan desde su designación como Académico de Mérito de la Academia de Ciencias Médicas, Físicas y Naturales de La Habana en 1908, hasta la creación de la Cátedra Honorífica Santiago Ramón y Cajal de la Universidad de La Habana el 10 de diciembre de 2011(AU)

Don Santiago Felipe Ramón y Cajal practiced military medicine in the Ten Year War in Cuba in Vista Hermosa and San Isidro hospitals located in Puerto Príncipe (Camagüey province today) as battlefield physician. During his stay from 1874 to 1875, he got sick from dysentery and malaria, so he asked for permission to leave Cuba and this was granted on May 30, 1875, after being diagnosed of serious malarial caquexia and declared as a soldier that could no longer be involved in the battlefield campaign. The money savings of his unfortunate stay in Cuba set the financial bases for the starting of his histological research work. There have been a number of activities to highlight the repercussion of Cajal´s work on Histology and Neurosciences in our country. The objective of this article was to provide thorough details about the Cajal´s stay in Cuba as military physician as well as the present legacy of this personality in the island ranging from the appointment of Don Santiago as Emeritus Professor Academician of the Medical, Physical and Natural Sciences School in Havana in 1908 to the creation of the Honorary Chair Santiago Ramón y Cajal in Havana University on December 10th, 2011AU)