Dietary ratio of linoleic to alpha-linolenic acid affects the reproductive performance of Japanese quail.

1. This study was conducted to assess the effects of different dietary omega 6:3 ratios fed to male and female Japanese quail breeders on incubation performance, chick quality and progeny performance.2. A completely randomised design was used, with five diets containing different ratios of vegetable oils rich in linoleic acid (LA from soybean oil) or α-linolenic acid (ALA from linseed oil) with LA/ALA ratios of 13.75:1, 10.69:1, 7.63:1, 4.57:1 and 1.48:1 with 12 cage replicates containing six birds each.3. There was a quadratic effect of the LA/ALA ratio on total hatchability (p < 0.011), fertile hatchability (p = 0.046) and total mortality (p = 0.046). There was no effect on fertility (p > 0.05). The LA/ALA ratios of 1.48 and 13.75 fed to both hens and cockerels or hens resulted in greater fertility, as measured by the number of days after copulation during which fertile eggs were laid and the number of points of hydrolysis on the perivitelline membrane. A decreasing linear effect (p < 0.0001) was observed on chick length and an increasing linear effect on body weight at 1 day of age. There were no effects on progeny performance.4. The LA/ALA ratio affected yolk mineral matter (p = 0.009), crude protein (p = 0.091), chick mineral matter (p < 0.038) and ether extract (p < 0.0001) contents. Maternal diet affected the fatty acid profile of egg yolk and chick liver, indicating that dietary contents were transferred to eggs and chicks.5. Fertile egg production increased with lower LA/ALA ratios. Therefore, linseed oil can be used together with soybean oil to formulate diets for female Japanese quail obtain LA/ALA ratios between 4:1 and 10:1.

Excesso de peso pré-gestacional e ácidos graxos poli-insaturados no leite humano: modelo teórico de causalidade / Pre-gestational overweight and polyunsaturated fatty acids in human milk: theoretical causality model

Resumo Inúmeros estudos têm se detido na avaliação da associação entre o excesso de peso pré-gestacional e os ácidos graxos poli-insaturados no leite humano. Todavia, diante da complexidade de fatores de risco potencialmente confundidores, é recomendável a utilização de ferramentas gráficas para identificar possíveis vieses. O objetivo deste artigo é propor um modelo teórico de causalidade utilizando o gráfico acíclico direcionado entre o excesso de peso pré-gestacional e os ácidos graxos poli-insaturados no leite humano. Foi realizada ampla revisão da literatura para identificar as variáveis com relações causais com a exposição e/ou desfecho. A escolha das variáveis para ajuste seguiu o algoritmo gráfico que compreende seis critérios para a seleção de um conjunto mínimo de variáveis potencialmente confundidoras. Condições socioeconômicas, intervalo interpartal, idade materna e padrão de consumo alimentar foram as variáveis ajustadas a fim de se estimar o efeito total do excesso de peso pré-gestacional sobre o conteúdo dos ácidos graxos poli-insaturados no leite humano. O conjunto mínimo de variáveis encontrado pelo presente estudo pode ser utilizado na análise de outros estudos que avaliem essa associação.

Abstract A number of studies have focused on the evaluation of the relationship between pre-pregnancy overweight and polyunsaturated fatty acids content in human milk. However, given the complexity of potentially confounding risk factors, the use of graphical tools is recommended to identify possible biases. This article aims to propose a theoretical model of causality using the directed acyclic graph between pre-pregnancy overweight and polyunsaturated fatty acids content in human milk. Methods: An extensive literature review was performed to identify variables with causal relationships with exposure and/or outcome. The choice of variables for adjustment followed the graphic algorithm that comprises six criteria for selecting a minimum set of potentially confounding variables. Socioeconomic conditions, interpartum interval, maternal age and food consumption pattern were the variables that would have to be adjusted in order to estimate the total effect of pre-pregnancy overweight on polyunsaturated fatty acids content in human milk. The minimum set of variables found in the present study can be used in the analysis of other studies that evaluate this association.

The Effect of Fat Intake with Increased Omega-6-to-Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Ratio in Animal Models of Early and Late Alzheimer's Disease-like Pathogenesis.

This work aims to clarify the effect of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) intake on the adult brain affected by amyloid pathology. McGill-R-Thy1-APP transgenic (Tg) rat and 5xFAD Tg mouse models that represent earlier or later disease stages were employed. The animals were exposed to a control diet (CD) or an HFD based on corn oil, from young (rats) or adult (mice) ages for 24 or 10 weeks, respectively. In rats and mice, the HFD impaired reference memory in wild-type (WT) animals but did not worsen it in Tg, did not cause obesity, and did not increase triglycerides or glucose levels. Conversely, the HFD promoted stronger microglial activation in Tg vs. WT rats but had no effect on cerebral amyloid deposition. IFN-γ, IL-1ß, and IL-6 plasma levels were increased in Tg rats, regardless of diet, while CXCL1 chemokine levels were increased in HFD-fed mice, regardless of genotype. Hippocampal 3-nitrotyrosine levels tended to increase in HFD-fed Tg rats but not in mice. Overall, an HFD with an elevated omega-6-to-omega-3 ratio as compared to the CD (25:1 vs. 8.4:1) did not aggravate the outcome of AD regardless of the stage of amyloid pathology, suggesting that many neurobiological processes relevant to AD are not directly dependent on PUFA intake.

Correlación entre la adicción a la comida y niveles del ácido araquidónico en adultos con obesidad tras intervenciones nutricionales / Correlation between food addiction and arachidonic acid levels in obese adults following nutritional interventions

Introducción: Los endocannabinoides son una diana en el tratamiento de la obesidad y se producen a partir de ácidos grasos esenciales, los derivados del ácido linoleico actúan como agonistas de los receptores cannabinoides tipo 1 (CB1), asimismo, los derivados del ácido linolénico ejercen efectos de antagonistas de dichos receptores, por lo cual se plantea que modificar el consumo dietario de los ácidos grasos omega 3 y 6 podría modular la activación del sistema endocannabinoide, lo que podría ser favorable para personas con adicción a la comida, considerando cómo este sistema promueve la actividad de las vías dopaminérgicas que se alteran en la adicción a sustancias psicoactivas. Objetivo: Analizar la correlación entre el puntaje de adicción a la comida por la escala mYFAS 2.0 y los niveles plasmáticos de ácido araquidónico en adultos con obesidad tras modular la ingesta de alimentos fuente de ácidos grasos esenciales. Metodología: Se desarrolló un estudio piloto con diseño de ensayo clínico cruzado en dos tiempos, en donde los participantes recibieron los tratamientos estándar y experimental, en estos se brindaron planes siguiendo recomendaciones para el manejo nutricional de la obesidad, adicionalmente, el tratamiento experimental contó con pautas para disminuir el consumo del Omega 6 y aumentar el consumo de Omega 3 para obtener una relación menor a 5:1 entre estos ácidos grasos. Resultados: Se observó una disminución significativa en el puntaje de adicción a la comida y los niveles plasmáticos de ácido araquidónico en los participantes tras recibir el tratamiento experimental, presentando una correlación directamente proporcional entre estas, por otro lado, el tratamiento estándar estuvo asociado a una correlación inversamente proporcional entre estos. Conclusiones: El descenso en las concentraciones plasmáticas del ácido araquidónico fue asociado a un menor puntaje en la escala mYFAS 2.0 de adicción a la comida en los participantes de este estudio tras su exposición al tratamiento experimental.

Introduction: Endocannabinoids are a target in obesity treatment and they are produced from the essential fatty acids, the metabolites of linoleic acid act as agonists of the cannabinoid receptors type 1 (CB1), likewise, the metabolites of the linolenic acid act as inverse agonists of such receptors, hence, it is proposed that modifying the dietary intake of the essential fatty acids (Omega 6 and 3) may modulate the activation of the endocannabinoid system, this could be favorable for people with food addiction, considering how this system promotes the activity of the dopaminergic pathways that are altered in the psychoactive substances addiction. Objective: To analyze the correlation between the food addiction score and plasmatic levels of arachidonic acid in adults with obesity following a modulation of the dietary intake of essential fatty acids n-6 and n-3 food sources. Methods: A pilot study was carried out with a two-period crossover clinical trial design, in which the participants received standard and experimental treatments, in these programs, plans were provided following guidelines for the nutritional management of obesity, in addition, the experimental treatment included recommendations to reduce the intake of linoleic acid and to increase the intake of linolenic acid to obtain a ratio lower to 5:1 between these fatty acids. Results: A significant decrease in the food addiction score and plasmatic levels of arachidonic acid was observed in the participants exposed to the experimental treatment, showing a directly proportional correlation, moreover, the standard treatment was associated to inverse correlations between these variables. Conclusion: The decrease in plasmatic arachidonic acid levels was associated with lower scores on the mYFAS 2.0 of food addiction in the participants of this study following their exposure to the experimental treatment.

Cellular and humoral immunity of broilers subjected to posthatch fasting and a prestarter diet containing conjugated linoleic acid.

This study aimed to evaluate the immunity of chickens up to 35 d subjected to posthatch fasting and supplementation with conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). A total of 320 chicks were housed in a completely randomized design with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement (0 or 12 h of fasting × 0.000 or 0.025% CLA in a prestarter diet), totaling 4 treatments (No-F-12 h; F-12 h; No-CLA; CLA) with 8 replicates of 10 birds each. The relative weights (% body weight) of the spleen and bursa were determined 12 h posthatch (Post-12 h) and then weekly. Immunoglobulin Y (IgY) titers against Newcastle disease virus (NDV) were measured by ELISA in the yolk sac contents Post-12 h and in the serum weekly. Hypersensitivity to phytohemagglutinin (PHA) inoculation was evaluated by toe-web swelling response on d 13 and 34, 4 times a day (after 3 h, 6 h, 12 h, and 24 h inoculation, respectively, PHA-3 h, PHA-6 h, PHA-12 h, and PHA-24 h). The data were subjected to analysis of variance (P < 0.05). F-12h reduced the Post-12 h relative weight of the spleen, and CLA reduced the relative weight of the bursa at this stage and at 28 d. At 13 d, F-12 h reduced PHA-3 h, whereas PHA-12 h was increased by CLA. At 34 d, CLA reduced PHA-3 h. A greater reaction was observed in the No-F-12 h-CLA chicks, for the PHA-24 h. In the Post-12 h evaluation, F-12h reduced, whereas CLA increased NDV-specific IgY titers in the yolk sac. No-F-12 h-No-CLA chicks had the lowest serum titers. At 21 d, F-12 h-CLA chicks exhibited the highest serum titers. Titers were higher in the F-12 h-No-CLA chicks, when compared to other treatments. At 28 d, fasting reduced the titers. In conclusion, F-12 h and CLA accelerated the transfer of immunoglobulins from the yolk sac to the serum. F-12 h impairs cellular immunity, whereas CLA favors it.

Effects of Cold Pressed Chia Seed Oil Intake on Hematological and Biochemical Biomarkers in Both Normal and Hypercholesterolemic Rabbits.

Most of the studies on the beneficial effects of chia have been conducted with its seeds. There is less evidence about the effects of cold pressed chia seeds oil on hypercholesterolemia-induced alterations. Thus, this study investigated the effects of cold pressed chia seed oil supplementation on certain hematological and biochemical biomarkers in both normal and hypercholesterolemic rabbits. Thirty two male rabbits were assigned to four different groups and fed on: 1) a regular diet (CD), 2) CD supplemented with 10% chia oil, 3) CD supplemented with 1% cholesterol, 4) CD supplemented with 1% cholesterol and 10% chia oil. After six weeks of dietary interventions, mean arterial blood pressure and visceral fat were measured and blood samples were analyzed for lipid profiles and hematological parameters while erythrocyte membranes and retroperitoneal fat were analyzed for fatty acids composition and biochemical biomarkers. Dietary intervention with chia oil achieved control of the hypercholesterolemia-induced increase of mean arterial blood pressure, neutrophil to lymphocytes ratio, erythrocyte membrane fluidity, and improved erythrocyte morphological alterations. With regard to inflammatory biomarkers, chia oil supplementation reduced omega-6/omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ratios and arachidonic/linolenic fatty acids ratios both in erythrocytes and fat from normal and hypercholesterolemic rabbits. The increase of linolenic fatty acid into the retroperitoneal fat was about 9 times higher than its respective controls. These results provide support for the potential health benefits of chia oil intake on hypercholesterolemia-associated clinical, hematological and biochemical alterations.

Dietary lipid sources on the fatty acid profile of swine fat: a review / Fontes lipídicas da dieta no perfil de ácidos graxos da gordura suína: revisão

Swine production has focused its efforts to reduce the amount and improve the quality of fat deposited on carcass. Due to the association of the lipid profile with cardiovascular diseases, researches have been developed to understand how the deposition occurs and to improve the fatty acid profile of swine fat. Among the factors that affect the fat composition, race, sex, and diet, the third one has the greatest impact. Lipid inclusion seems to be a promising way to modulate the lipid profile of fat in pig carcass, with an effect on saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids. The effect is greater in that fatty acid with the highest concentration in the source used. Soybean oil can double the value of linoleic acid, a by-product of olive oil increases oleic acid by 4%, and flaxseed oil has the ability to increase α-linolenic acid from less than 1% to over 18% in total fatty acids. In addition to the source, the duration and concentration influence the modulation of the fatty acid profile.

A cadeia produtiva de suínos tem concentrado esforços para reduzir a quantidade e melhorar a qualidade da gordura depositada na carcaça. Devido a associação do perfil lipídico com doenças cardiovasculares, pesquisas têm sido desenvolvidas para entender como ocorre a deposição e para melhorar o perfil de ácidos graxos na carcaça. Dentre os fatores que afetam a composição dessa gordura estão a raça, o sexo e a dieta dos suínos, sendo que este último é o de maior impacto. A inclusão de ingredientes lipídicos parece uma promissora forma de modular o perfil lipídico da gordura na carcaça dos suínos, sendo observado efeito nos ácidos graxos saturados, monoinsaturados e poli-insaturados. O efeito é maior naquele ácido graxo de maior concentração na fonte utilizada. O óleo de soja pode dobrar o valor do ácido linoleico. Um subproduto do óleo de oliva incrementa em 4% o ácido oleico. E o óleo de linhaça tem a capacidade de aumentar o α-linolênico de menos de 1% para mais de 18% no total de ácidos graxos. Além da fonte, o período e a concentração influenciam na modulação do perfil de ácidos graxos.

Dietary lipid sources on the fatty acid profile of swine fat: a review / Fontes lipídicas da dieta no perfil de ácidos graxos da gordura suína: revisão

ABSTRACT: Swine production has focused its efforts to reduce the amount and improve the quality of fat deposited on carcass. Due to the association of the lipid profile with cardiovascular diseases, researches have been developed to understand how the deposition occurs and to improve the fatty acid profile of swine fat. Among the factors that affect the fat composition, race, sex, and diet, the third one has the greatest impact. Lipid inclusion seems to be a promising way to modulate the lipid profile of fat in pig carcass, with an effect on saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids. The effect is greater in that fatty acid with the highest concentration in the source used. Soybean oil can double the value of linoleic acid, a by-product of olive oil increases oleic acid by 4%, and flaxseed oil has the ability to increase α-linolenic acid from less than 1% to over 18% in total fatty acids. In addition to the source, the duration and concentration influence the modulation of the fatty acid profile.

RESUMO: A cadeia produtiva de suínos tem concentrado esforços para reduzir a quantidade e melhorar a qualidade da gordura depositada na carcaça. Devido a associação do perfil lipídico com doenças cardiovasculares, pesquisas têm sido desenvolvidas para entender como ocorre a deposição e para melhorar o perfil de ácidos graxos na carcaça. Dentre os fatores que afetam a composição dessa gordura estão a raça, o sexo e a dieta dos suínos, sendo que este último é o de maior impacto. A inclusão de ingredientes lipídicos parece uma promissora forma de modular o perfil lipídico da gordura na carcaça dos suínos, sendo observado efeito nos ácidos graxos saturados, monoinsaturados e poli-insaturados. O efeito é maior naquele ácido graxo de maior concentração na fonte utilizada. O óleo de soja pode dobrar o valor do ácido linoleico. Um subproduto do óleo de oliva incrementa em 4% o ácido oleico. E o óleo de linhaça tem a capacidade de aumentar o α-linolênico de menos de 1% para mais de 18% no total de ácidos graxos. Além da fonte, o período e a concentração influenciam na modulação do perfil de ácidos graxos.

Omega-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Enhance Tumor Aggressiveness in Experimental Lung Cancer Model: Important Role of Oxylipins.

Lung cancer is currently the leading cause of cancer death worldwide; it is often diagnosed at an advanced stage and bears poor prognosis. It has been shown that diet is an important environmental factor that contributes to the risk and mortality of several types of cancers. Intake of ω-3 and ω-6 PUFAs plays an important role in cancer risk and progression. Current Western populations have high consumption of ω-6 PUFAs with a ratio of ω-6/ω-3 PUFAs at 15:1 to 16.7:1 This high consumption of ω-6 PUFAs is related to increased cancer risk and progression. However, whether a diet rich in ω-6 PUFAs can contribute to tumor aggressiveness has not been well investigated. We used a murine model of pulmonary squamous cell carcinoma to study the aggressiveness of tumors in mice fed with a diet rich in ω-6 PUFAs and its relationship with oxylipins. Our results shown that the mice fed a diet rich in ω-6 showed a marked increase in proliferation, angiogenesis and pro-inflammatory markers and decreased expression of pro-apoptotic proteins in their tumors. Oxylipin profiling revealed an upregulation of various pro-tumoral oxylipins including PGs, HETEs, DiHETrEs and HODEs. These results demonstrate for the first time that high intake of ω-6 PUFAs in the diet enhances the malignancy of tumor cells by histological changes on tumor dedifferentiation and increases cell proliferation, angiogenesis, pro-inflammatory oxylipins and molecular aggressiveness targets such as NF-κB p65, YY1, COX-2 and TGF-ß.

Different N6: N3 Ratios on Performance, Egg Quality, and Health of 81-Week-Old Laying Hens

This study aimed to evaluate different n6:n3ratios on performance, serum biochemical variables, and egg quality in 81-week-old laying hens. A total of 224 laying hens, 81-week-old Hysex White, were utilized and distributed in a completely randomized design consisting of seven treatments and eight replications of four birds per cage, totaling 56 cages. The experimental treatments consisted of seven different n6:n3fatty acid ratios: 1.0:1.0, 2.0:1.0, 4.0:1.0, 8.0:1.0, 16.0:1.0, 32.0:1.0, and 64.0:1.0. For diet formulation, sunflower oil, rich in omega-6, and linseed oil, rich in omega-3, were used. Productive performance, egg quality and serum biochemical variables of laying hens were evaluated at the end of the cycle at 26, 27, and 28 days. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted and orthogonal contrasts were used to obtain the sum of squares of the treatment of the analysis of variance in polynomial regression effects. Egg quality variables did not vary significantly between the diets. Therefore, diet supplementation with polyunsaturated fatty acids at different ratios was possible without altering egg quality. The only exception was Haugh unit, which displayed a quadratic effect indicating that the best value was the n6:n3ratio of 32, according to data significance. It was concluded that an increase in n6:n3ratios decreases laying hens' feed intake. The n6:n3 ratio of 34.64 provides greater eggs' Haugh units, decreasing from that value on. The ratios of n6:n3 did not influence the hens' serum biochemical variables.(AU)

Ad libitum consumption of milk supplemented with omega 3, 6, and 9 oils from infancy to middle age alters behavioral and oxidative outcomes in male mice

We tested the hypothesis that administration of omega (ω)-9, ω-3, and ω-6 to mice can prevent oxidative alterations responsible for behavioral and cognitive alterations related with aging. Twenty-eight-day-old mice received skim milk (SM group), SM enriched with omega oil mixture (EM group), or water (control group) for 10 and 14 months, equivalent to middle age. Mice were evaluated for behavioral alterations related to depression and memory and oxidative status [brain levels of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), reduced glutathione (GSH), and myeloperoxidase (MPO)]. The 10-month EM group increased immobility time during the forced swimming test compared with control, indicating increased stress response. The 14-month SM- and EM-treated groups increased sucrose consumption compared with control, showing an expanded motivational state. The 14-month SM group decreased the number of rearings compared with the 14-month control and EM groups. The number of entries and time spent in the central square of the open field was higher in the 10-month EM group than in the control, revealing an anxiolytic-like behavior. TBARS decreased in the hippocampus and striatum of the 10-month EM group compared with the control. A similar decrease was observed in the striatum of the 10-month SM group. GSH levels were higher in all 14-month treated groups compared with 10-month groups. MPO activity was higher in the 14-month EM group compared with the 14-month control and SM groups, revealing a possible pro-inflammatory status. In conclusion, omega oils induced conflicting alterations in middle-aged mice, contributing to enhanced behavior and anxiolytic and expanded motivational state, but also to increased stress response and pro-inflammatory alterations.

Possibilities of Using Chia Oil As an Omega-3 Source in Laying Quail Diets Chia Oil Supplementation on Quails

This study aims to investigate the effects of different levels of chia (Salvia Hispanica L.) seed oil supplementation as omega-3 source to the diets of laying quails on yield performance, egg quality, and egg yolk fatty acid profiles. The study was conducted including 4 treatment groups as follows: C0 (0 g/kg diet), C1 (1 g/kg diet), C2 (2 g/kg diet), and C3 (3 g/kg diet). In the study, 96 female quails at the age of 18 weeks were used and the trial was carried out for 4 weeks. As a result, it was determined that chia seed oil supplementation to the diet was not effective on feed consumption, feed conversion ratio, egg yield, or egg weight of quails, but it was effective on the yolk index of egg quality characteristics (p<0.05). The most important effect of chia seed oil supplementation to the diet was determined to be on the omega-3/omega-6 ratio of egg yolk. Dietary chia seed oil increased the omega-3/omega-6 ratio (p<0.01). It can be stated that increasing the level of omega-3 in the diets, positively affects the polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)/saturated fatty acid (SFA) ratio.(AU)

Consumption of Monounsaturated Fatty Acids Is Associated with Improved Cardiometabolic Outcomes in Four African-Origin Populations Spanning the Epidemiologic Transition.

Long-chain omega-3 PUFAs, specifically eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), are of increasing interest because of their favorable effect on cardiometabolic risk. This study explores the association between omega 6 and 3 fatty acids intake and cardiometabolic risk in four African-origin populations spanning the epidemiological transition. Data are obtained from a cohort of 2500 adults aged 25-45 enrolled in the Modeling the Epidemiologic Transition Study (METS), from the US, Ghana, Jamaica, and the Seychelles. Dietary intake was measured using two 24 h recalls from the Nutrient Data System for Research (NDSR). The prevalence of cardiometabolic risk was analyzed by comparing the lowest and highest quartile of omega-3 (EPA+ DHA) consumption and by comparing participants who consumed a ratio of arachidonic acid (AA)/EPA + DHA ≤4:1 and >4:1. Data were analyzed using multiple variable logistic regression adjusted for age, gender, activity, calorie intake, alcohol intake, and smoking status. The lowest quartile of EPA + DHA intake is associated with cardiometabolic risk 2.16 (1.45, 3.2), inflammation 1.59 (1.17, 2.16), and obesity 2.06 (1.50, 2.82). Additionally, consuming an AA/EPA + DHA ratio of >4:1 is also associated with cardiometabolic risk 1.80 (1.24, 2.60), inflammation 1.47 (1.06, 2.03), and obesity 1.72 (1.25, 2.39). Our findings corroborate previous research supporting a beneficial role for monounsaturated fatty acids in reducing cardiometabolic risk.

Omega-6 Fatty Acids: A Sustainable Alternative to Improve Beef Production Efficiency.

Global beef production must increase in the next decades to meet the demands of a growing population, while promoting sustainable use of limited natural resources. Supplementing beef cattle with omega-6 fatty acids (FAs) is a nutritional approach shown to enhance production efficiency, with research conducted across different environments and sectors of the beef industry. Omega-6 FA from natural feed ingredients such as soybean oil are highly susceptible to ruminal biohydrogenation. Hence, our and other research groups have used soybean oil in the form of Ca soaps (CSSO) to lessen ruminal biohydrogenation, and maximize delivery of omega-6 FA to the duodenum for absorption. In cow-calf systems, omega-6 FA supplementation to beef cows improved pregnancy success by promoting the establishment of early pregnancy. Cows receiving omega-6 FA during late gestation gave birth to calves that were healthier and more efficient in the feedlot, suggesting the potential role of omega-6 FA on developmental programming. Supplementing omega-6 FA to young cattle also elicited programming effects toward improved adipogenesis and carcass quality, and improved calf immunocompetence upon a stress stimulus. Cattle supplemented with omega-6 FA during growing or finishing periods also experienced improved performance and carcass quality. All these research results were generated using cattle of different genetic composition (Bos taurus and B. indicus influenced), and in different environments (tropical, subtropical, and temperate region). Hence, supplementing omega-6 FA via CSSO is a sustainable approach to enhance the production efficiency of beef industries across different areas of the world.

Role of Long Chain Fatty Acids in Developmental Programming in Ruminants.

Nutrition plays a critical role in developmental programs. These effects can be during gametogenesis, gestation, or early life. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are essential for normal physiological functioning and for the health of humans and all domestic species. Recent studies have demonstrated the importance of n-3 PUFA in ruminant diets during gestation and its effects on pre-and postnatal offspring growth and health indices. In addition, different types of fatty acids have different metabolic functions, which affects the developmental program differently depending on when they are supplemented. This review provides a broad perspective of the effect of fatty acid supplementation on the developmental program in ruminants, highlighting the areas of a developmental program that are better known and the areas that more research may be needed.

Lipid profile and fatty acid composition of marine fish species from Northeast coast of Brazil.

Total lipid content, fatty acid composition and nutritional profile of lipid fraction of fourteen fish species from the Brazilian Northeastern coast were evaluated. Lipid content was determined by Bligh and Dyer methodology, whereas the fatty acid composition was determined by gas chromatography with flame ionization detector. The indices of atherogenicity, thrombogenicity and hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic ratio were used to evaluate the nutritional quality of lipid fraction. The total lipid content ranged from 0.25 to 3.09%, with higher values in L. synagris. A significant difference (p < 0.05) were noted in fatty acids composition between the fourteen fish species. PUFA were the major fatty acids in twelve of fourteen species and C. leiarchus showed the highest content. The n-3 content ranged from 69.83 to 270.62 mg g-1 of total lipids, being EPA and DHA the major fatty acids in most of the species studied. The species L. synagris, M. bonaci and S. brasiliensis exceeded the WHO daily intake recommendation of 250 mg per day from those fatty acids. The quality indexes of the lipid fraction as well as the n-6/n-3 and PUFA/SFA ratios indicated that all fish species can be healthy nutritional options, and can bring many benefits to human health. The principal component analysis resulted in a two-principal-component model that described 79.78% of data variance. Also, it highlighted that despite the differences between the breeding strategies of fish families, the species could be grouped according to their similarity in fatty acids composition.

Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Concentrations and Association with Weight Gain in Pregnancy.

Lower concentrations of omega-3 (ω-3) and higher concentrations of omega-6 (ω-6) have been associated with excess weight in adults; however, the information on this relationship in pregnancy remains in its infancy. This study aimed to investigate the association between plasma levels of ω-3 and ω-6 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and weight gain during the gestational period. This is a prospective cohort study involving 185 pregnant women registered with the prenatal services of a municipality in the northeast of Brazil. The dosage of the serum concentration of fatty acids and the anthropometric measurements were carried out at the baseline, and the women's weight information in the first, second, and third trimesters was collected from their pregnancy cards. Serum fatty acids were determined with the help of gas chromatography. The response variable of this study is the latent variable weight gain in pregnancy, derived from three variables: gestational weight in the first, second, and third trimesters. The main exposure was the plasma concentrations of PUFAs. Structural equation modeling was used for the data analysis. The mean age of the pregnant women was 26.74 years old (SD: 5.96 years). Most of the women had not completed high school (84%) and had a low income (70.86%). It was observed that the ω-3 PUFAs, represented by ALA plasm (alpha-linolenic acid), DHA (docosahexaenoic acid), and the EPA/ALA ratio (eicosapentaenoic acid to alpha-linolenic acid ratio), were negatively associated with the weight gain during pregnancy construct (-0.20, -0.12, and -0.14, respectively). Meanwhile, the PUFAs represented by the ratio between the ω-6 category acids ARA and LA (arachidonic acid and linoleic acid) had a direct and positive association (0.22) with that construct. Excess maternal weight gain was associated with ω-3 and ω-6 plasma levels. The women with the greatest gestational weight gain were the ones that presented the highest ARA/LA ratio (ω-6) and the lowest plasma concentrations of ALA, DHA, and EPA/ALA ratio (ω-3).

Free and Substrate-Immobilised Lipases from Fusarium verticillioides P24 as a Biocatalyst for Hydrolysis and Transesterification Reactions.

Fungal enzymes are widely used in technological processes and have some interesting features to be applied in a variety of biosynthetic courses. Here, free and substrate-immobilised lipases from Fusarium verticillioides P24 were obtained by solid-state fermentation using wheat bran as substrate and fungal carrier. Based on their hydrolytic and transesterification activities, the lipases were characterised as pH-dependent in both reactions, with higher substrate conversion in an alkaline environment. Thermally, the lipases performed well from 30 to 45 °C, being more stable in mild conditions. Organic solvents significantly influenced the lipase selectivity using different vegetable oils as fatty acid source. Omega(ω)-3 production in n-hexane achieved 45% using canola oil, against ≈ 18% in cyclohexane. However, ω-6 production was preferably produced for both solvents using linseed oil with significant alterations in the yield (≈ 79% and 49% for n-hexane and cyclohexane, respectively). Moreover, the greatest enzyme selectivity for ω-6 led us to suppose a lipase preference for the Sn1 position of the triacylglycerol. Lastly, a transesterification reaction was performed, achieving 90% of ester conversion in 72 h. This study reports the characterisation and use of free and substrate-immobilised lipases from Fusarium verticillioides P24 as an economic and efficient method for the first time.

Effect of long-term consumption of oxidized polyunsaturated fatty acids on atherosclerotic lesion in LDL receptor knockout mice / Efeito do consumo crônico de ácidos graxos poliinsaturados oxidados na aterosclerose em camundongos knockout para receptor de LDL

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are susceptible to enzymatic and non-enzymatic oxidation, leading to the production of secondary compounds that present different physiological effects. Among the PUFA, the products formed from Omega 6 (n-6 FA) and Omega 3 (n-3 FA) fatty acids oxidation can modulate inflammation, dyslipidemia and oxidative stress preventing or reducing the atherosclerosis progression. In fact, the effect of chronic intake of edible oils containing products of polyunsaturated fatty acids oxidation (POPs) on atherosclerosis is still controversial. In general POPs from n-6 FA have a more pro-inflammatory profile than POPs from n-3 FA. Thus, the objective of this study was to compare the chronic intake of partially oxidized n-6 FA and n-3 FA rich oils on atherosclerosis biomarkers. Initially, six edible oils containing a higher amount of n-6 and n-3 FA were submitted to oxidative conditions, simulating the steps of transport, storage and consume. It was observed that oxidative reaction started in all oils since the first step and at the moment of consumption, some oxidative chemical markers were out the legal range suggested by the Official Agencies. In addition, it was possible to identify the type of secondary product formed from each precursor oil, providing a better information for oils quality control. After this step, fish and soybean oils were chosen as n-3 FA and n-6 FA rich oils, respectively. Using LDLr(-/-) mice, the effect of three oxidative levels of soybean oil was evaluated after 24 weeks of supplementation. Animals fed with the oil with the highest level of oxidation (fried and reused oil) showed no body weight gain, suggesting that POPs from soybean oil at this level could promote a browning effect on white adipose tissue by increasing UCP-1 expression. This group also showed the highest concentration of lipoproteins in plasma. However, these metabolic differences did not accelerate atherosclerosis in the animals. Finally, the effect of POPs from n-3 FA and n-6 FA oxidation were compared also using LDLr(-/-) mice as model for experimental atherosclerosis. Some alterations observed after n-3 FA supplementation, such as the increase of liver weight, IL-6, SONPC, 8-HETE and 15-F2-Isop and the decrease of BAT and glucose, were reversed by their POPs. In addition, POPs from n-6 FA caused increased of LDL and 5-HETE. As observed in the previous study, these metabolic alterations were not enough to prevent or accelerate atherosclerosis, as measured by histological analysis of the lesion size in the aorta. These results suggest that although a significant amount of POPs are being consumed by diet, their metabolic effects did not influence atherosclerotic plaques in the animal model. However, besides lesion area in the aortas, new studies should also evaluate the plaques stability

Os ácidos graxos poliinsaturados (PUFA) são suscetíveis à oxidação enzimática e não enzimática, levando à produção de compostos secundários que apresentam diferentes efeitos fisiológicos. Entre os PUFA, os produtos formados a partir da oxidação dos ácidos graxos ômega 6 (n-6 FA) e ômega 3 (n-3 FA) podem modular a inflamação, dislipidemia e estresse oxidativo, impedindo ou reduzindo a progressão da aterosclerose. De fato, o efeito da ingestão crônica de óleos contendo produtos da oxidação de ácidos graxos poliinsaturados (POPs) na aterosclerose ainda é controverso. Em geral, os POPs dos n-6 FA têm um perfil mais pró-inflamatório do que os POPs dos n-3 FA. Assim, o objetivo deste estudo foi comparar a ingestão crônica de POPs provenientes de óleos ricos em n-6 FA e n-3 FA em biomarcadores de aterosclerose. Inicialmente, seis óleos ricos em n-6 FA e n-3 FA foram submetidos a condições oxidativas, simulando as etapas de transporte, armazenamento e consumo. Observou-se que a reação oxidativa iniciou-se em todos os óleos desde a primeira etapa e, no momento do consumo, alguns marcadores oxidativos estavam fora da faixa legal sugerida pelas agências reguladoras. Além disso, foi possível identificar o tipo de produto secundário formado a partir de cada óleo precursor, fornecendo melhores informações para o controle de qualidade dos óleos. Após esta etapa, os óleos de peixe e soja foram escolhidos como óleos ricos em n-3 FA e n-6 FA, respectivamente. Utilizando camundongos LDLr(-/-), o efeito de três níveis oxidativos de óleo de soja foi avaliado após 24 semanas de suplementação. Os animais alimentados com o óleo com maior nível de oxidação (óleo frito e de reuso) não apresentaram ganho de peso corporal, sugerindo que os POPs do óleo de soja nesse nível de oxidação pudessem promover um efeito de Browning no tecido adiposo branco, aumentando a expressão de UCP-1. Este grupo também mostrou a maior concentração de lipoproteínas no plasma. No entanto, essas diferenças metabólicas não aceleraram a aterosclerose nos animais. Finalmente, o efeito de POPs da oxidação de óleos ricos em n-3 FA e n-6 FA foi comparado também usando camundongos LDLr(-/-), como modelo para aterosclerose experimental. Algumas alterações observadas após a suplementação com óleo de peixe fresco, como aumento do peso hepático, IL-6, SONPC, 8-HETE e 15-F2-IsoP e diminuição da BAT e glicose, foram revertidas por seus POPs. Além disso, os POPs do óleo de soja causaram aumento de LDL e 5-HETE. Como observado no estudo anterior, essas alterações metabólicas não foram suficientes para prevenir ou acelerar a aterosclerose, medida pela análise histológica do tamanho da lesão na aorta. Esses resultados sugerem que, embora uma quantidade significativa de POPs esteja sendo consumida pela dieta, seus efeitos metabólicos não influenciaram as placas ateroscleróticas no modelo animal. Porém, além da área de lesão nas aortas, novos estudos também devem avaliar a estabilidade das placas