Officer gunpoint during police stops: Repercussions for youth mental health and perceived safety.

Youth-police contact is increasingly acknowledged as a stressor and a racialized adverse childhood experience that can undermine youths' mental health. The present study investigates a particularly distressing feature of youths' direct and witnessed in-person police stops-officer gunpoint (i.e., officers drawing of firearms and pointing them at youth, their peers, or other community members). We examine patterns of youths' officer gunpoint exposure and associations with youth mental health and safety perceptions. Data come from the Survey of Police-Adolescent Contact Experiences (SPACE), a cross-sectional survey of a community-based sample of Black youth ages 12-21 in Baltimore City, Maryland (n = 335), administered from August 2022 to July 2023. Findings indicate that ~33% of youth reporting in-person police stops had been exposed to officer gunpoint during stops. Officer gunpoint was significantly and positively associated with being male, unemployed, having an incarcerated parent, living in a neighborhood with greater disorder, and having been directly stopped by police, in addition to youth delinquency and impulsivity. Net of covariates, experiencing officer gunpoint was associated with a significantly higher rate of youth emotional distress during stops. Significant associations between officer gunpoint and youths' current police violence stress, police avoidance, and diminished safety perceptions also emerged and were largely explained by youths' heightened emotional distress at the time of police stops. Trauma-informed approaches are needed to mitigate the mental health harms of youth experiencing officer gunpoint.

Synergistic effects of exposure to multiple types of violence on non-fatal drug overdose among women who inject drugs in Indonesia.

BACKGROUND: While research has demonstrated associations between experiencing violence from intimate and non-intimate partners and non-fatal drug overdose among women who inject drugs, existing studies focus predominantly on the Global North and are analytically limited. Guided by syndemics theory, this study examined whether different forms of gender-based violence exert independent and interactive effects on non-fatal drug overdose among women who inject drugs in Indonesia. METHODS: We recruited 731 cisgender adult women who injected drugs in the preceding year via respondent-driven sampling. We used multivariate logistic regressions to examine associations between self-reported intimate partner violence (IPV), police sexual violence, and police extortion, and non-fatal drug overdose, with covariance adjustment for factors drawn from the risk environment. We tested for interaction effects among violence measures by calculating metrics for attributable proportion (AP), relative excess risk due to interaction (RERI), and synergy index (S). RESULTS: Experiencing IPV (AOR 2.5; 95 % CI 1.2, 5.1; p = 0.012), police extortion (AOR 2.2; 95 % CI 1.5, 3.2; p ≤ 0.001), and police sexual violence (AOR 3.7; 95 % CI 1.5, 9.4; p = 0.005) each independently predicted non-fatal overdose, after adjusting for potential confounders. A significant positive interaction was detected between IPV and police sexual violence on drug overdose (AP=0.6, p = 0.001; S = 3.8, p = 0.015) such that the joint effect of these two forms of violence was associated with a nearly fourfold increase in non-fatal overdose risk compared to the main effects of each violence exposure. CONCLUSION: This is the first study to show that concurrent IPV and police sexual violence exert an amplifying effect on non-fatal overdose beyond the additive effects of each exposure. Supporting the value of gender-responsive harm reduction services that integrate violence and overdose responses, results suggest that eliminating one form of violence when multiple forms of GBV are present could magnify the expected reduction in overdose.

Police Violence Exposure and Traumatic Stress Among Youth: A Systematic Review.

Youth exposure to violence increases the risk of poor mental and physical health outcomes lasting into adulthood. Traumatic stress is an outcome of particular concern as the physiological stress response impacts the developing brain. Recently, youth exposure to police violence has been conceptualized as an adverse childhood experience that may impact traumatic stress. To examine this possibility, we conducted a systematic review, drawing upon five databases to gather the existing quantitative and qualitative peer-reviewed research on exposure to police violence and traumatic stress in youth. Searches yielded 27 relevant articles utilizing various study designs: thirteen quantitative, thirteen qualitative, and one mixed method. Twenty-six of the 27 studies found evidence of a relationship between police violence exposure and traumatic stress in youth. Police violence was associated with youth traumatic stress across three types of exposures: direct, vicarious, and anticipated. Studies also explored differential impacts by race and gender. The review revealed current gaps in the literature, such as a lack of data on select sociodemographic groups (e.g., rural youth, LGBTQ+ youth) and potential protective factors (e.g., resilience and school connectedness). In line with the findings, we put forth a research agenda as well as policy and practice recommendations to improve police interactions with youth and mental health services for youth who have been exposed to police violence. Recommendations include improving systematic data collection to track all types of police violence exposure, creating spaces for positive police interactions with youth, and training mental health practitioners to support youth exposed to police violence.

Neighborhood Safety and Neighborhood Police Violence Are Associated with Psychological Distress among English- and Spanish-Speaking Transgender Women of Color in New York City: Finding from the TURNNT Cohort Study.

Transgender women of color (TWOC) experience high rates of police violence and victimization compared to other sexual and gender minority groups, as well as compared to other White transgender and cisgender women. While past studies have demonstrated how frequent police harassment is associated with higher psychological distress, the effect of neighborhood safety and neighborhood police violence on TWOC's mental health is rarely studied. In this study, we examine the association between neighborhood safety and neighborhood police violence with psychological distress among TWOC. Baseline self-reported data are from the TURNNT ("Trying to Understand Relationships, Networks and Neighborhoods among Transgender Woman of Color") Cohort Study (analytic n = 303). Recruitment for the study began September 2020 and ended November 2022. Eligibility criteria included being a TWOC, age 18-55, English- or Spanish-speaking, and planning to reside in the New York City metropolitan area for at least 1 year. In multivariable analyses, neighborhood safety and neighborhood police violence were associated with psychological distress. For example, individuals who reported medium levels of neighborhood police violence had 1.15 [1.03, 1.28] times the odds of experiencing psychological distress compared to those who experienced low levels of neighborhood police violence. Our data suggest that neighborhood safety and neighborhood police violence were associated with increased psychological distress among TWOC. Policies and programs to address neighborhood police violence (such as body cameras and legal consequences for abusive officers) may improve mental health among TWOC.

Neighborhood-level Fatal Police Violence and Severe Maternal Morbidity in California.

Police violence is a pervasive issue that may have adverse implications for severe maternal morbidity (SMM). We assessed how the occurrence of fatal police violence (FPV) in one's neighborhood before/during pregnancy may influence SMM risk. Hospital discharge records from California between 2002-2018 were linked with the Fatal Encounters database (N=2,608,682). We identified 2,184 neighborhoods (census-tracts) with at least one FPV incident during the study period and used neighborhood fixed-effects models adjusting for individual sociodemographic characteristics to estimate odds of SMM associated with experiencing FPV in one's neighborhood anytime within the 24-months before childbirth. We did not find conclusive evidence on the link between FPV occurrence before delivery and SMM. However, estimates show that birthing people residing in neighborhoods where one or more FPV events had occurred within the preceding 24-months of giving birth may have a mildly elevated odds of SMM than those residing in the same neighborhoods with no FPV occurrence during the 24-months preceding childbirth (Odds Ratio (OR)=1.02; 95% Confidence Interval (CI): 0.99-1.05), particularly among those living in neighborhoods with fewer (1-2) FPV incidents throughout the study period (OR=1.03; 95% CI:1.00-1.06). Our findings provide evidence for the need to continue to examine the health consequences of police violence.

Investigating the Black Birth Experience: A Race-Stratified Analysis of Preterm Birth Risk and Exposure to Metropolitan Statistical Area-Level Police-Related Deaths, US 2018-2019.

Police-related violence may be a source of chronic stress underlying entrenched racial inequities in reproductive health in the USA. Using publicly available data on police-related fatalities, we estimated total and victim race-specific rates of police-related fatalities (deaths per 100,000 population) in 2018-2019 for Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSA) and counties within MSAs in the USA. Rates were linked to data on live births by maternal MSA and county of residence. We fit adjusted log-Poisson models with generalized estimating equations and cluster-robust standard errors to estimate the relative risk of preterm birth associated with the middle and highest tertiles of police-related fatalities compared to the lowest tertile. We included a test for heterogeneity by maternal race/ethnicity and additionally fit race/ethnicity-stratified models for associations with victim race/ethnicity-specific police-related fatality rates. Fully adjusted models indicated significant adverse associations between police-related fatality rates and relative risk of preterm birth for the total population, non-Hispanic Black, and non-Hispanic White groups separately. Results confirm the role of fatal police violence as a social determinant of population health outcomes and inequities, including preterm birth.

Cumulative Police Exposures, Police Violence Stress, and Depressive Symptoms: A Focus on Black LGBQ Youth in Baltimore City, Maryland.

The present study investigates associations between cumulative police exposures, police violence stress, and depressive symptoms among Black youth, and whether LGBQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer) identities moderate these associations. Data come from the Survey of Police-Adolescent Contact Experiences (SPACE), a cross-sectional survey of a community-based sample of Black youth ages 12-21 in Baltimore City, Maryland (n = 345), administered from August 2022 to July 2023. We used multivariable ordinary least squares regression to estimate direct associations and product-term analysis to test for effect modification by sexual identities. We also calculate covariate-adjusted predicted depressive symptoms scores by cumulative police exposures and police violence stress across sexual identities. Findings indicate that LGBQ youth collectively reported higher levels of police violence stress than heterosexual youth. Still, LGBQ youth varied in their cumulative police exposures, which were significantly higher among bisexual and queer youth than lesbian or gay youth. Associations between cumulative police exposures, police violence stress, and depressive symptoms were significantly moderated by LGBQ identity, with the largest associations emerging for bisexual and queer youth. Police exposures and police violence stress also compounded to worsen depressive symptoms among the subsample of LGBQ youth. Collectively, our findings suggest that LGBQ youth-especially bisexual and queer youth-may be particularly vulnerable to the mental health harms of cumulative police exposures and police violence stress. Intersectional, public health approaches that combine prevention and treatment strategies are needed to mitigate LGBQ mental health inequities stemming from cumulative police exposures and police violence stress.

Prevalence and Correlates of Exposure (Direct and Indirect) to Perceived Racism-Based Police Violence among Black Emerging Adult College Students.

A growing body of evidence makes plain that exposure to perceived racism-based events, particularly for Black emerging adults aged 18-29, represents a major public health concern in the United States given its widespread prevalence and documented association with adverse health outcomes. However, research on the prevalence and correlates of exposure to perceived racism-based police violence (RPV) for Black emerging adults is scant. The current study examines the prevalence and correlates of RPV exposure among a sample of 300 Black emerging adult college students, utilizing computer-assisted surveys. Univariate, bivariate, and multiple linear regression analyzes were conducted. We found moderately low rates for direct RPV exposure (Mean = 5.85) and moderately high rates (Mean = 10.4) for indirect exposure. Being younger and having incomes greater than $10,000 were significant predictors of direct RPV exposure, whereas being female and older were significant predictors of indirect RPV exposure. Our findings provide implications for future research and underscore the need for social work clinicians to include the RPV scales during their assessments for traumatic experiences.

Who are the "police" in "police violence"? Fatal violence by U.S. law enforcement agencies across levels of government.

BACKGROUND: Police violence is increasingly recognized as an urgent public health problem. Basic questions about police violence, however, remain unanswered, including which types of law enforcement agency are responsible for fatal police violence deaths. METHODS: We estimated the proportion of police violence deaths in the U.S. (2013-2022) that were attributable to local, county, state, federal, or tribal police agencies, using mapping police violence data. We examined proportions overall, by decedent race/ethnicity, and by state. RESULTS: Nationally, 60% of decedents were killed by municipal, 29% by county, 8% by state, and 3% by federal, police, with < 1% killed by tribal or other officers. These proportions varied by race/ethnicity, with 56% of Native American decedents killed by municipal police compared to 70-75% among other racially minoritized people. While municipal police were responsible for most deaths in most states, in the Southeast, county police predominated. In some Northeastern states (and Alaska), state police were responsible for > 40% of deaths. CONCLUSIONS: We identify wide geographic & racial/ethnic variation in the agencies responsible for fatal police violence. Findings suggest that the budgetary and infrastructural shifts required to prevent fatal police violence need to occur at multiple levels of government.

Sleep Problems Among Black Youth Exposed to Police Violence on Digital Media.

Findings from a recent survey of a community-based sample of Black youth ages 12 through 21 in Baltimore City, Maryland (n = 345) reveal that viewing fatal police violence videos is associated with significant increases in the odds of youth sleep disturbances, and about 30% of this association is attributable to emotional distress after viewing the videos.

Bodies of evidence: The 'Excited Delirium Syndrome' and the epistemology of cause-of-death inquiry.

"Excited Delirium Syndrome" (ExDS) is a controversial diagnosis. The supposed syndrome is sometimes considered to be a potential cause of death. However, it has been argued that its sole purpose is to cover up excessive police violence because it is mainly used to explain deaths of individuals in custody. In this paper, we examine the epistemic conditions giving rise to the controversial diagnosis by discussing the relation between causal hypotheses, evidence, and data in forensic medicine. We argue that the practitioners' social context affects causal inquiry through background assumptions that enter inquiry at multiple stages. This analysis serves to better understand the wide usage of the controversial diagnosis of ExDS.

Police Violence Experienced by Black Gay and Bisexual Men: The Effects on HIV Care Engagement and Medication Adherence.

Black men face high rates of police violence, including direct victimization and indirect exposure to or knowledge of harmful policing. This violence can result in death and physical harm, as well as in numerous poor mental health outcomes. There has been little research examining experiences of police violence experienced by Black gay and bisexual men or the effects of police brutality on HIV continuum of care outcomes. To address this important gap, in this exploratory study, we examined the effects of police brutality on engagement in HIV care and adherence to antiretroviral medications. Cross-sectional survey data were collected from 107 Black gay and bisexual men living with HIV. The path analysis showed that men with greater exposure to police violence had increased symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder and were more likely to have missed HIV care appointments in the past year. Additionally, there was a significant indirect effect of exposure to police violence on missed medication doses via PTSD symptoms.

Racial Identity Attitudes and Vicarious Traumatization from Undue Police Violence on Anticipatory Traumatic Reaction Among Black Americans.

Although the viral nature of videos that capture violent and racialized policing of Black Americans in the United States can increase awareness, exposure to race-based violence can result in vicarious traumatization, particularly among Black Americans. The relationship between anticipatory traumatic reactions (ATRs) and racial identity attitudes is not clearly addressed in the extant body of literature. The current study addresses this research disparity by first analyzing group mean differences among Black Americans (N = 138) who were assigned to audiovisual, written, and imaginal exposure groups. The current study also used a cluster analysis of Black Americans to examine the differences between racial identity attitudes and ATRs following media exposure to undue police violence. Results from the study indicated that no differences in ATRs existed based on types of media exposure. Significant differences across three racial identity clusters existed between ATR in association with attitudes of assimilation, miseducation, self-hatred, anti-dominance, and ethnic-racial salience. Findings from the study suggest that mental health professionals should attend to racial identity attitudes as a relevant factor in how Black American clients experience the psychological impact of media exposure to undue police violence.

Temporal and spatial shifts in gun violence, before and after a historic police killing in Minneapolis.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the impact of the police murder of George Floyd in Minneapolis, MN on firearm violence, and examine the spatial and social heterogeneity of the effect. METHODS: We analyzed a uniquely constructed panel dataset of Minneapolis Zip Code Tabulation Areas from 2016-2020 (n = 5742), consisting of Minnesota Hospital Association, Minneapolis Police Department, Minneapolis Public Schools, Census Bureau, and Minnesota Department of Natural Resources data. Interrupted time-series and random effects panel models were used to model the spatiotemporal effects of police killing event on the rate of firearm assault injuries. RESULTS: Findings reveal a rising and falling temporal pattern post-killing and a spatial pattern in which disadvantaged, historically Black communities near earlier sites of protest against police violence experienced the brunt of the post-killing increase in firearm assault injury. These effects remain after adjusting for changes in police activity and pandemic-related restrictions, indicating that rising violence was not a simple byproduct of changes in police behavior or COVID-19 response. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that the increases in firearm violence as a result of police violence are disproportionately borne by underserved communities.

O luto materno em situação de violência policial: contribuições psicanalíticas / Maternal grief in situations of police violence: psychoanalytic contributions / Duelo materno en situaciones de violencia policial: aportes psicoanalíticos

A polícia brasileira já foi considerada a mais letal e frequentemente alveja jovens negros marginalizados (Araújo, 2015). As mães desses indivíduos perdem seus filhos precocemente de maneira abrupta e violenta. Para muitas mães a perda de um filho constitui a maior do mundo, o que torna relevante questionar: como a perda de um filho pela violência policial repercute no enlutamento materno? Foram encontrados poucos estudos sobre o tema, apesar de sua prevalência e dos impactos negativos permanentes na vida dessas mães (Gomes, 2019). Por meio de uma revisão bibliográfica não sistemática sobre o tema do luto e das perdas violentas, e com base em depoimentos publicizados de mães que perderam seus filhos pela violência policial, focalizamos como a psicanálise tem um importante papel na escuta dessas mulheres, que podem traçar diferentes caminhos de trabalho psíquico. Como resultado, vimos que a perda de um filho possui caráter traumático e nela se destaca a natureza narcísica da relação mãe-filho, rompida abruptamente pela morte. Este estudo oferece algumas contribuições para o entendimento desse sofrimento e para a escuta dessas mulheres, que, como muitas se autodenominam, são "mães sem nome". (AU)

Brazilian police were once considered the most lethal and often target marginalized young black men (Araújo, 2015). The mothers of these individuals lose their children early in an abrupt and violent manner. To many mothers, the loss of a child is the biggest one in the world, which makes it relevant to ask: How does the loss of a child to police violence affect maternal mourning? Few studies have been found on the topic, despite its prevalence and the permanent negative impacts on the lives of these mothers (Gomes, 2019). Through a non-systematic literature review on the theme of grief and violent loss, and based on publicized testimonials of mothers who have lost their children to police violence, we focused on how psychoanalysis has an important role in listening to these women, who can trace different paths of psychic work. As a result, we concluded that the loss of a child has a traumatic issue, and the narcissistic nature of the mother-child relationship, abruptly broken by death, stands out. This study offers some contributions to the understanding of this suffering and to the listening of these women, who, as many call themselves, "mothers without a name". (AU)

La policía brasileña fue considerada la más letal y frecuentemente ataca a los jóvenes negros marginados (Araújo, 2015). Las madres de estas personas pierden a sus hijos tempranamente de forma abrupta y violenta. Para muchas madres, la pérdida de un hijo es la mayor del mundo, lo que hace pertinente preguntarse: ¿cómo la pérdida de un hijo por la violencia policial afecta al duelo materno? Se encontraron pocos estudios sobre este tema, a pesar de su prevalencia y de los impactos negativos permanentes en la vida de estas madres (Gomes, 2019). Mediante una revisión bibliográfica no sistemática sobre el tema del duelo y de las pérdidas violentas, y a partir de testimonios difundidos de madres que perdieron a sus hijos por la violencia policial, nos centramos en cómo el psicoanálisis tiene un papel importante en la escucha de estas mujeres, que pueden trazar diferentes caminos de trabajo psíquico. Como resultado, vimos que la pérdida de un hijo tiene carácter traumático y destaca la naturaleza narcisista de la relación madre-hijo, rota abruptamente por la muerte. Este estudio ofrece algunas contribuciones a la comprensión de este sufrimiento y a la escucha de estas mujeres que, como muchas se autode-nominan, son "madres sin nombre". (AU)

Understanding the impact of police brutality on Black sexually minoritized men.

Young Black gay, bisexual, and other sexually minoritized men (SMM) face high levels of police brutality and other negative, unwarranted encounters with the police. Such interactions have known health consequences. The purpose of this study was to understand the health, mental health, and social consequences of police brutality experienced by young Black SMM. We conducted in-depth interviews with 31 Black, cisgender men, ages of 16-30 and analyzed the data using thematic analysis. Our primary results are summarized in four themes: 1) Police brutality is built into the system and diminishes trust; 2) Videos and social media make visible violence that has long existed; 3) Police brutality contributes to anxiety and other psychosocial effects; and 4) Violence reduces feelings of safety and contributes to avoidance of police. Our results highlight the direct and vicarious police brutality participants are subjected to and sheds light on the effects of such violence on trust, perceived safety, anxiety, and trauma symptoms. Results from this study contribute to the needed public health conversation around police brutality against Black men, specifically shedding light on the experiences of Black SMM.

The association between permit-to-purchase laws and shootings by police.

BACKGROUND: Fatal and nonfatal shootings by police are a public health issue that warrants additional research. Prior research has documented associations between fatal shootings by police and gun ownership, legislative strength scores, and lax concealed carry weapons laws. Despite research on other firearm-related outcomes, little is known about the impact of permit-to-purchase (PTP) laws on shootings by police. We generated counts of fatal and nonfatal OIS from the Gun Violence Archive from 2015 to 2020. We conducted cross-sectional regression modeling with a Poisson distribution and robust standard errors. In addition to PTP, we included several state-level policies that may be associated with shootings by police: comprehensive background check only (CBC-only) laws, concealed carry licensing laws, stand your ground laws, violent misdemeanor prohibitions, and extreme risk protection orders (ERPO). We controlled for state-level demographic characteristics and included a population offset to generate incidence rate ratios (IRR). FINDINGS: PTP laws were associated with a 28% lower rate in shootings by police [IRR = 0.72, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.64-0.81]. Shall Issue (IRR = 1.34, 95% CI 1.17-1.53) and Permitless (IRR = 1.61, 95% CI 1.35-1.91) concealed carry laws and CBC-only laws (IRR = 1.12, 95% CI 1.01-1.25) were associated with higher rates of shootings by police. Stand your ground, violent misdemeanor prohibitions, and ERPO laws were not associated with shootings by police. CONCLUSIONS: Our study found that PTP laws were associated with significantly lower rates of shootings by police. Removing restrictions on civilian concealed carry was associated with significantly higher rates. State-level firearm policies may be a lever to address shootings by police.

A mixed-methods assessment of off-duty police shootings in a media-curated database.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to examine rates of killings perpetrated by off-duty police and news coverage of those killings, by victim race and gender, and to qualitatively evaluate the contexts in which those killings occur. DATA SOURCES AND STUDY SETTING: We used the Mapping Police Violence database to curate a dataset of killings perpetrated by off-duty police (2013-2021, N = 242). We obtained data from Media Cloud to assess news coverage of each off-duty police-perpetrated killing. STUDY DESIGN: Our study used a convergent mixed-methods design. We examined off-duty police-perpetrated killings by victim race and gender, comparing absolute rates and rates relative to total police-perpetrated killings. [Correction added on 26 June 2023, after first online publication: 'policy-perpetrated' has been changed to 'police-perpetrated' in the preceding sentence.] We also conducted race-gender comparisons of the frequency of news media reporting of these killings, and whether reporting identified the perpetrator as an off-duty officer. We conducted thematic analysis of the narrative free-text field that accompanied quantitative data using grounded theory. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Black men were the most frequent victims killed by off-duty police (39.3%) followed by white men (25.2%), Hispanic men (11.2%), white women (9.1%), men of unknown race (9.1%), and Black women (4.1%). Black women had the highest rate of off-duty/total police-perpetrated killings relative to white men (rate = 12.82%, RR = 8.32, 95% CI: 4.43-15.63). There were threefold higher odds of news reporting of a police-perpetrated killing and the off-duty status of the officer for incidents with Black and Hispanic victims. Qualitative analysis revealed that off-duty officers intervened violently within their own social networks; their presence escalated situations; they intentionally obscured information about their lethal violence; they intervened while impaired; their victims were often in crisis; and their intervention posed harm and potential secondary traumatization to witnesses. CONCLUSIONS: Police perpetrate lethal violence while off duty, compromising public health and safety. Additionally, off-duty police-perpetrated killings are reported differentially by the news media depending on the race of the victim.

"We (still) charge genocide": A systematic review and synthesis of the direct and indirect health consequences of police violence in the United States.

Building on historical and contemporary efforts to eliminate police and other forms of state violence, and on the understanding that police violence is a social determinant of health, we conducted a systematic review in which we synthesize the existing literature around 1) racial disparities in police violence; 2) health impacts of direct exposure to police violence; and 3) health impacts of indirect exposure to police violence. We screened 336 studies and excluded 246, due to not meeting our inclusion criteria. Forty-eight additional studies were excluded during the full text review, resulting in a study sample size of 42 studies. Our review showed that Black people in the US are far more likely than white people to experience a range of forms of police violence: from fatal and nonfatal shootings, to assault and psychological violence. Exposure to police violence increases risk of multiple adverse health outcomes. Moreover, police violence may operate as a vicarious and ecological exposure, producing consequences beyond those directly assaulted. In order to successfully eliminate police violence, scholars must work in alignment with social justice movements.

The COVID-19, racism, and violence syndemic: Evidence from a qualitative study with Black residents of Chicago.

The COVID-19 pandemic emerged in the United States in the shadows of a vast history of structural racism and community and police violence that disproportionately affect Black communities. Collectively, they have created a syndemic, wherein COVID-19, racism, and violence are mutually reinforcing to produce adverse health outcomes. The purpose of this study was to understand the COVID-19, racism, and violence syndemic and examine how structural racism and violence contributed to the disproportionate impact of COVID-19 on Black communities. In early 2021, we conducted phenomenological qualitative interviews with 50 Black residents of Chicago. Interview transcripts were coded and analyzed using thematic analysis. We identified four primary themes in our analyses: 1) the intersection of racism and violence in Chicago; 2) longstanding inequities were laid bare by COVID-19; 3) the pervasiveness of racism and violence contributes to poor mental health; 4) and COVID-19, racism and violence emerged as a syndemic. Our findings underscore the importance of addressing social and structural factors in remediating the health and social consequences brought about by COVID-19.