Using geometric morphometrics to determine the "fittest" floral shape: A case study in large-flowered, buzz-pollinated Meriania hernandoi.

PREMISE: Floral shape (relative arrangement and position of floral organs) is critical in mediating fit with pollinators and maximizing conspecific pollen transfer particularly in functionally specialized systems. To date, however, few studies have attempted to quantify flowers as the inherently three-dimensional (3D) structures they are and determine the effect of intraspecific shape variation on pollen transfer. We here addressed this research gap using a functionally specialized system, buzz pollination, in which bees extract pollen through vibrations, as a model. Our study species, Meriania hernandoi (Melastomataceae), undergoes a floral shape change from pseudocampanulate corollas with more actinomorphically arranged stamens (first day) to open corollas with a more zygomorphic androecium (second day) over anthesis, providing a natural experiment to test how variation in floral shape affects pollination performance. METHODS: In one population of M. hernandoi, we bagged 51 pre-anthetic flowers and exposed half of them to bee pollinators when they were in either stage of their shape transition. We then collected flowers, obtained 3D flower models through x-ray computed tomography for 3D geometric morphometric analyses, and counted the pollen grains remaining per stamen (male pollination performance) and stigmatic pollen loads (female pollination performance). RESULTS: Male pollination performance was significantly higher in open flowers with zygomorphic androecia than in pseudo-campanulate flowers. Female pollination performance did not differ among floral shapes. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that there is an "optimal" shape for male pollination performance, while the movement of bees around the flower when buzzing the spread-out stamens results in sufficient pollen deposition regardless of floral shape.

Sex-specific flower resource use in hummingbird communities.

Research Highlight: Maglianesi, M. A., Maruyama, P. K., Temeles, E. J., Schleuning, M., Zanata, T. B., Sazima, M., Gutiérrez-Zamora, A., Marín-Gómez, O. H., Rosero-Lasprilla, L., Ramírez-Burbano, M. B., Ruffini, A. E., Salamanca-Reyes, J. R., Sazima, I., Nuñez-Rosas, L. E., Arizmendi, M. C., Rahbek, C., & Dalsgaard, B. (2022). Behavioural and morphological traits influence sex-specific floral resource use by hummingbirds across the Americas. Journal of Animal Ecology, 00: 00-00. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.13746. In their paper on intersexual differences in niche breadth and niche overlap in floral resource use in hummingbird communities, Maglianesi et al. compiled data of plant-hummingbird interactions based on pollen loads, and territoriality and morphological traits for 31 hummingbird species, and investigated whether patterns of resource use by females and males were related to sexual dimorphism and foraging behaviour. While accounting for evolutionary relatedness among species, the authors found a high level of resource partitioning between sexes (broader and more dissimilar floral niche breadth in females) and the sex-specific resource use by hummingbird species was related to territoriality and morphological traits; niche overlap between sexes was greater for territorial than non-territorial species, and lower for species with greater sexual dimorphism in bill curvature. This paper addresses two very timely issues, on the one hand on resource partitioning by sex to reduce intersexual competition in hummingbirds, and on the other hand highlight the much needed information on foraging ecology of female hummingbirds for better understanding of intersexual variation in shaping coexistence and species diversity in hummingbird communities and the interactions between plants and their hummingbird pollinators.

Investigación Destacada: Maglianesi, M. A., Maruyama, P. K., Temeles, E. J., Schleuning, M., Zanata, T. B., Sazima, M., Gutiérrez-Zamora, A., Marín-Gómez, O. H., Rosero-Lasprilla, L., Ramírez-Burbano, M. B., Ruffini, A. E., Salamanca-Reyes, J. R., Sazima, I., Nuñez-Rosas, L. E., Arizmendi, M. C., Rahbek, C., & Dalsgaard, B. (2022). Behavioural and morphological traits influence sex-specific floral resource use by hummingbirds across the Americas. Journal of Animal Ecology, 00: 00-00. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.13746. En su artículo sobre las diferencias intersexuales en la amplitud de nicho y la superposición de nicho en el uso de recursos florales en las comunidades de colibríes, Maglianesi et al. recopilaron datos de interacciones planta-colibrí basados en cargas de polen, y de territorialidad y rasgos morfológicos para 31 especies de colibríes, e investigaron si los patrones de uso de recursos por parte de hembras y machos estaban relacionados con el dimorfismo sexual y la conducta de forrajeo. Al tener en cuenta la relación evolutiva entre las especies, los autores encontraron un alto nivel de partición de recursos entre sexos (amplitud de nicho floral más amplio y diferente en las hembras) y el uso de recursos específico del sexo por parte de las especies de colibríes estaba relacionado con la territorialidad y los rasgos morfológicos; la superposición de nicho entre sexos fue mayor para las especies territoriales que para las no territoriales, y menor para las especies con mayor dimorfismo sexual en la curvatura del pico. Este artículo aborda dos temas muy oportunos, por un lado, la partición de recursos por sexo para reducir la competencia intersexual en los colibríes y, por otro lado, destaca la necesidad de información sobre la ecología de alimentación de las hembras de los colibríes para una mejor comprensión de la variación intersexual en la conformación de la coexistencia y diversidad de especies en las comunidades de colibríes y las interacciones entre las plantas y sus colibríes polinizadores.

Behavioural and morphological traits influence sex-specific floral resource use by hummingbirds.

Research on resource partitioning in plant-pollinator mutualistic systems is mainly concentrated at the levels of species and communities, whereas differences between males and females are typically ignored. Nevertheless, pollinators often show large sexual differences in behaviour and morphology, which may lead to sex-specific patterns of resource use with the potential to differentially affect plant reproduction and diversification. We investigated variation in behavioural and morphological traits between sexes of hummingbird species as potential mechanisms underlying sex-specific flower resource use in ecological communities. To do so, we compiled a dataset of plant-hummingbird interactions based on pollen loads for 31 hummingbird species from 13 localities across the Americas, complemented by data on territorial behaviour (territorial or non-territorial) and morphological traits (bill length, bill curvature, wing length and body mass). We assessed the extent of intersexual differences in niche breadth and niche overlap in floral resource use across hummingbird species. Then, we tested whether floral niche breadth and overlap between sexes are associated with sexual dimorphism in behavioural or morphological traits of hummingbird species while accounting for evolutionary relatedness among the species. We found striking differences in patterns of floral resource use between sex. Females had a broader floral niche breadth and were more dissimilar in the plant species visited with respect to males of the same species, resulting in a high level of resource partitioning between sexes. We found that both territoriality and morphological traits were related to sex-specific resource use by hummingbird species. Notably, niche overlap between sexes was greater for territorial than non-territorial species, and moreover, niche overlap was negatively associated with sexual dimorphism in bill curvature across hummingbird species. These results reveal the importance of behavioural and morphological traits of hummingbird species in sex-specific resource use and that resource partitioning by sex is likely to be an important mechanism to reduce intersexual competition in hummingbirds. These findings highlight the need for better understanding the putative role of intersexual variation in shaping patterns of interactions and plant reproduction in ecological communities.

La investigación sobre la partición de recursos en los sistemas mutualistas planta-polinizador se concentra principalmente en los niveles de especies y comunidades, mientras que las diferencias entre machos y hembras suelen ser ignoradas. Sin embargo, los polinizadores suelen mostrar grandes diferencias sexuales en su comportamiento y morfología, lo que puede dar lugar a patrones específicos de uso de recursos para cada sexo con el potencial de afectar de forma diferencial la reproducción y la diversificación de las plantas. Se estudió la variación en los rasgos de comportamiento y morfológicos entre sexos de las especies de colibríes como posibles mecanismos que explican el uso de recursos florales específicos para cada sexo en las comunidades ecológicas. Para ello, se recopiló un conjunto de datos de interacciones planta-colibrí con base en las cargas de polen de 31 especies de colibríes de 13 localidades en las Américas, además de datos sobre su comportamiento territorial (territorial o no territorial) y rasgos morfológicos (longitud y curvatura del pico, longitud del ala y masa corporal). Se evaluaron las diferencias intersexuales en la amplitud y el solapamiento del nicho en el uso de los recursos florales para las distintas especies de colibríes. Posteriormente, se comprobó si la amplitud del nicho floral y el solapamiento entre sexos están asociados con el dimorfismo sexual en los rasgos de comportamiento o morfológicos de las especies de colibríes, teniendo en cuenta el parentesco evolutivo entre las especies. Se encontraron diferencias notables en los patrones de uso de los recursos florales entre sexos. Las hembras presentaron una mayor amplitud de nicho floral y fueron más disímiles en las especies de plantas visitadas con respecto a los machos de la misma especie, lo que resultó en un alto nivel de partición de recursos entre los sexos. Se encontró que tanto la territorialidad como los rasgos morfológicos están relacionados con el uso de recursos específicos por sexo en las especies de colibríes. En particular, el solapamiento de nicho entre sexos fue mayor para las especies territoriales que para las no territoriales y, además, el solapamiento de nicho se asoció negativamente con el dimorfismo sexual en la curvatura del pico en las especies de colibríes. Estos resultados revelan la importancia de los rasgos conductuales y morfológicos de las especies de colibríes en el uso de recursos según el sexo y que la partición de recursos entre sexos es probablemente un mecanismo importante para reducir la competencia intersexual en los colibríes. Estos resultados ponen de manifiesto la necesidad de comprender mejor el rol que tiene la variación intersexual en los patrones de interacción y en la reproducción de las plantas en las comunidades ecológicas.

Foraging Behavior and Pollen Transport by Flower Visitors of the Madeira Island Endemic Echium candicans.

The study of flower visitor behavior and pollen transport dynamics within and between plants can be of great importance, especially for threatened or rare plant species. In this work, we aim to assess the flower visitor assemblage of the Madeiran endemic Echium candicans and evaluate the performance of the most common visitors through the analysis of their foraging behavior and pollen loads. The flower visitor assemblage of E. candicans is diverse, including several insect groups and the endemic lizard Teira dugesii, but bees are the most common visitors. In general, large bees (Amegilla quadrifasciata, Apis mellifera, and Bombus spp.) had the highest average visitation rates (>18 flowers/min) and their pollen loads had higher percentages of homospecific pollen (>66%) when compared with butterflies and hoverflies. The honeybee (Apis mellifera) and two bumblebees (Bombus terrestris and B. ruderatus) were the most efficient flower visitors of E. candicans, but their foraging behavior seems to favor geitonogamy. Other visitors, such as butterflies and the small bee Lasioglossum wollastoni, may have a complementary role to the honeybee and bumblebee species, as their high mobility is associated with fewer flower visits on each plant and may promote xenogamy. Two non-native bees (A. mellifera and B. ruderatus) are important flower visitors of E. candicans and may contribute mostly to self-pollination rendering the endemic plant more vulnerable to inbreeding effects.

Macro- and trace elements content in honeybee pollen loads in relation to the harvest season.

The content of macro-and trace elements in honeybee pollen loads collected from the Al-Ahsa oasis, Saudi Arabia during spring, summer, autumn, and winter in 2018/2019 were determined. After critical screening and observation, we found that the major pollen floral resources were rapeseed, sunflower, summer squash, and date palm. The highest values of sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), phosphorus (P) and manganese (Mn) were found in pollen loads trapped during spring and winter. The highest levels of copper (Cu) and iron (Fe) were found from pollen loads harvested during autumn, while the highest content of zinc (Zn) was found in pollen loads collected during the summer. Higher concentrations of the essential elements (Na, K, Ca, Mg and P) for human nutrition found in pollen loads collected during the spring and winter seasons, make them valuable food supplements. Finally, the elements contained in pollen loads can be related to the season of pollen load collection.

Heterostyly promotes compatible pollination in buckwheats: Comparisons of intraflower, intraplant, and interplant pollen flow in distylous and homostylous Fagopyrum.

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Heterostyly, the reciprocal positioning of stigmas and anthers in different floral morphs, has long been thought to promote intermorph pollination. However, extensive intramorph pollination occurs commonly in heterostylous species, leading to recurrent questions about the functional and evolutionary significance of heterostyly. METHODS: To identify the sources of stigmatic pollen (autogamous [intraflower], geitonogamous [intraplant], vs. interplant), we emasculated either one flower or entire plants in experimental populations of the two closely related buckwheat species, distylous Fagopyrum esculentum and homostylous F. tataricum. Differences in pollen size allowed unambiguous identification of pollen on stigmas. RESULTS: Only 2.4% of F. tataricum pollen and 1.5% of F. esculentum pollen arrived successfully on compatible stigmas of other plants. In the former (homostylous) species, 71.3% of the pollen load on stigmas was autogamous, 10.8% was geitonogamous, and 17.9% was interplant. In the latter (distylous) species, 37.45% of the pollen on stigmas was autogamous, 13.8% was geitonogamous, 17.0% was intramorph, and 31.75% was intermorph. The amount of incompatible pollen arriving on stigmas was greatly decreased by both one-flower and whole-plant emasculations, and thus, the proportion of compatible pollen deposited increased with one-flower emasculation and increased even more with whole-plant emasculation. CONCLUSIONS: Our quantification of pollen-donor sources in these two species indicated that heterostyly in Fagopyrum esculentum provided a nearly 2-fold fitness advantage (in terms of compatible pollination) over expected (random) pollen transfers between morphs. Because of reduced herkogamy, the homostylous F. tataricum was highly autogamous.

Diversity of pollination ecology in the Schismatoglottis Calyptrata Complex Clade (Araceae).

Field studies integrating pollination investigations with an assessment of floral scent composition and thermogenesis in tropical aroids are rather few. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the pollination biology of nine species belonging to Schismatoglottis Calyptrata Complex Clade. The flowering mechanism, visiting insect activities, reproductive system, thermogenesis and floral scent composition were examined. Anthesis for all species started at dawn and lasted 25-29 h. Colocasiomyia (Diptera, Drosophilidae) are considered the main pollinators for all the investigated species. Cycreon (Coleoptera, Hydrophilidae) are considered secondary pollinators as they are only present in seven of the nine host plants, despite the fact that they are the most effective pollen carrier, carrying up to 15 times more pollen grains than Colocasiomyia flies. However, the number of Colocasiomyia individuals was six times higher than Cycreon beetles. Chaloenus (Chrysomelidae, Galeuricinae) appeared to be an inadvertent pollinator. Atheta (Coleoptera, Staphylinidae) is considered a floral visitor in most investigated species of the Calyptrata Complex Clade in Sarawak, but a possible pollinator in S. muluensis. Chironomidae midges and pteromalid wasps are considered visitors in S. calyptrata. Thermogenesis in a biphasic pattern was observed in inflorescences of S. adducta, S. calyptrata, S. giamensis, S. pseudoniahensis and S. roh. The first peak occurred during pistillate anthesis; the second peak during staminate anthesis. Inflorescences of all investigated species of Calyptrata Complex Clade emitted four types of ester compound, with methyl ester-3-methyl-3-butenoic acid as a single major VOC (volatile organic compound). The appendix, pistillate zone, staminate zone and spathe emitted all these compounds. A mixed fly-beetle pollination system is considered an ancestral trait in the Calyptrata Complex Clade, persisting in Sarawak taxa, whereas the marked reduction of interpistillar staminodes in taxa from Peninsular Malaysia and especially, Ambon, Indonesia, is probably linked to a shift in these taxa to a fly-pollinated system.

Mycotoxicological and palynological profiles of commercial brands of dried bee pollen

Abstract Pollen is used in the human diet as a food supplement because of its high nutritional value; however, this product is prone to fungal contamination that could potentially generate toxins that are harmful to human health. This study aimed to verify the floral diversity of commercial brands of bee pollen and their mycotoxicological safety for human consumption. A total of 27 bee pollen samples were analyzed; these samples represented commercial brands, either showing an inspection seal or not, marketed in the State of Rio de Janeiro. The analyzed parameters included floral diversity through palynological analysis, water activity, fungal counts, identification and toxigenic profiles. The palynological analysis identified nine plant families, of which the Asteraceae was predominant. Analysis of hygienic quality based on fungal load showed that 92% of samples were reproved according to the commercial, sanitary, and food safety quality indicators. Aspergillus, Cladosporium and Penicillium were the most common genera. Toxigenic evaluation showed that 25% of the A. flavus strains produced aflatoxins. The high rate of contamination of products bearing an inspection seal emphasizes the need to monitor the entire procedure of bee pollen production, as well as to revise the current legislation to ensure safe commercialization of this product.

The forgotten flies: the importance of non-syrphid Diptera as pollinators.

Bees, hoverflies and butterflies are taxa frequently studied as pollinators in agricultural and conservation contexts. Although there are many records of non-syrphid Diptera visiting flowers, they are generally not regarded as important pollinators. We use data from 30 pollen-transport networks and 71 pollinator-visitation networks to compare the importance of various flower-visiting taxa as pollen-vectors. We specifically compare non-syrphid Diptera and Syrphidae to determine whether neglect of the former in the literature is justified. We found no significant difference in pollen-loads between the syrphid and non-syrphid Diptera. Moreover, there was no significant difference in the level of specialization between the two groups in the pollen-transport networks, though the Syrphidae had significantly greater visitation evenness. Flower visitation data from 33 farms showed that non-syrphid Diptera made up the majority of the flower-visiting Diptera in the agricultural studies (on average 82% abundance and 73% species richness), and we estimate that non-syrphid Diptera carry 84% of total pollen carried by farmland Diptera. As important pollinators, such as bees, have suffered serious declines, it would be prudent to improve our understanding of the role of non-syrphid Diptera as pollinators.

Effect of artificial feeders on pollen loads of the hummingbirds of Cerro de La Muerte, Costa Rica

Although sugar-water feeders are commonly used by enthusiasts to attract hummingbirds, little is known about how they affect hummingbird behavior and flower use. We studied the highland hummingbird assemblage of Cerro de La Muerte, Costa Rica, both at a site with permanent feeders (La Georgina Restaurant) and further from it. We examined how feeder use and monopolization affected seasonal changes in pollen loads during four sampling periods, including dry and wet seasons, from 2003-2005. We expected that species monopolizing the feeders would carry little or no pollen whatsoever, and would have pollen loads characterized by low floral diversity, in contrast with species less dependent on feeders. We obtained pollen samples from 183 individuals of four hummingbird species captured around the feeders using mist nets, which were compared with a pollen reference collection of plants with a pollination syndrome by hummingbirds. The same methods were implemented at a site 3km away from the feeders. Feeder usage was quantified by counting the number of times hummingbirds drank from the feeders in periods of 4min separated by 1min. The effects of hummingbird species and season on pollen load categories were assessed using a nominal logistic regression. The alpha species at the site, the Fiery-throated Hummingbird (Panterpe insignis), dominated the feeders during the dry season. Meanwhile, in the wet season, feeder usage was more evenly distributed across species, with the exception of the Volcano Hummingbird, Selasphorus flammula, which occupies the last place in the dominance hierarchy. Pollen loads of hummingbirds captured near feeders were low in abundance (more than 50% of captured individuals had zero or low pollen loads), and low in species richness (96% of the hummingbirds with pollen from only one plant genus, Centropogon). Overall pollen loads increased during the dry season coinciding with peaks in flower availability, although the ...

El uso de comederos constituye una práctica común para atraer colibríes, a pesar de que sabemos poco acerca de sus efectos sobre las relaciones ecológicas entre colibríes y sus plantas asociadas. Estudiamos el grupo de colibríes del Cerro de La Muerte, Costa Rica, en un sitio con comederos permanentes (Restaurante La Georgina), así como en un lugar alejado de los comederos. Analizamos cómo el uso y monipolización estacional de los comederos afectaba la carga de polen en cuatro períodos de muestreo entre 2003 y 2005. Esperábamos que las especies que monopolizaban los comederos tuvieran poco o cero polen, y si lo presentaban que la carga de polen estuviera representada por pocas especies en comparación con especies menos dependientes de los comederos. En la estación seca, la especie alfa Panterpe insignis, dominó los comederos. En la estación lluviosa el uso de comederos fue más equitativo. La carga de polen fue muy baja en abundancia (50% de los colibríes tenían poco o cero polen) y diversidad (96% de los colibríes tenían polen solamente del género Centropogon). Encontramos una relación competitiva y antagonística entre la visitación de comederos y la abundancia de flores. La carga de polen aumentó en la estación seca al haber más flores, aunque la mayoría de los colibríes capturados no tenían polen. Durante la estación lluviosa, cuando hay menos flores disponibles, el uso de comederos aumenta y la carga de polen disminuye. El uso de comederos interfiere en redes de polinización y se combina con otros efectos antropológicos negativos, tales como el calentamiento global, fragmentación de hábitats, cambio en el uso del suelo, que hacen más difícil la conservación de complejas redes tróficas.

Evaluation of the botanical origin of commercial dry bee pollen load batches using pollen analysis: a proposal for technical standardization

High quality of bee pollen for commercial purpose is required. In order to attend the consumer with the best identification of the botanical and floral origin of the product, 25 bee pollen batches were investigated using two techniques of pollen grain preparation. The first started to identify pollen loads of different colors in two grams of each well mixed batch, and the second to identify pollen grains in a pool made of all the pollen loads comprised in two grams. The best result was obtained by this last technique, when a pollen grain suspension was dropped on a microscope slide and circa 500 pollen grains were counted per sample. This analysis resulted in the recognition of monofloral and bifloral pollen batches, while the use of the first technique resulted in all samples receiving a heterofloral diagnosis.

É exigida alta qualidade para a comercialização de pólen apícola. A fim de atender o consumidor com a melhor identificação da origem botânica e floral do produto, 25 partidas de pólen apícola feram investigadas usande duas diferentes técnicas na preparação dos grãos de pólen. A primeira partiu da identificação das cargas polínicas contidas em dois gramas de cada partida bem misturada segundo suas cores. A segunda visava identificar os grãos de pólen de um agrupamento ("pool") de todas as cargas polínicas contidas em dois gramas de cada amostra. O melhor resultado foi obtido pela última técnica, quando uma suspensão de grãos de pólen era gotejada sobre uma lâmina de microscopia e cerca de 500 grãos de pólen eram centades por amostra. Esta análise resultou no reconhecimento de partidas monoflorais e biflorais de pólen apícola, enquanto que usando a primeira técnica, todas as amostras receberam a diagnose heterefloral.

ABEJAS VISITANTES DE Mimosa pigra L. (MIMOSACEAE): COMPORTAMIENTO DE PECOREO Y CARGAS POLÍNICAS / Bees visiting Mimosa pigra L. (Mimosaceae): foraging behavior and pollen loads

Se estudiaron las cargas polínicas de 13 taxones de abejas capturadas visitando a Mimosa pigra en la zona de influencia del Embalse Porce II (Antioquia, Colombia). De los 21 tipos polínicos encontrados, M. pigra presenta el mayor porcentaje acumulado de colecta; Mimosa pudica, Piper aduncum, Solanum diversifolium, Warszewiczia coccinea y Psidium guajava, en su orden, se pueden considerar fuentes alternativas de polen, para varias de las especies de abejas cuyas cargas polínicas fueron analizadas. Dentro de las especies de abejas capturadas visitando a M. pigra se pueden diferenciar varios grupos según el tipo y abundancia relativa de los tipos polínicos encontrados en sus cargas. Uno de ellos, incluye a siete especies de abejas con más del 85% de granos de polen de M. pigra; otro, con cuatro especies de abejas que colectaron más del 94,5% del polen en M. pigra y M. pudica. Adicionalmente, se encontraron especies como Trigona dorsalis con cargas de M. pigra (59,4%), de S. diversifolium (37,8%) y especies de abejas como Lasioglossum sp. 113, en cuyas cargas polínicas predominan los granos de polen de P. aduncum (61,8%) y de W.coccinea (36,4%), en contraste con los de M. pigra (1,3%). En cuanto a la riqueza de tipos polínicos colectados por las abejas sobresalen Trigona muzoensis (12 tipos polínicos) y T. dorsalis (10 tipos), lo cual refleja nichos tróficos más amplios para estas especies y deja duda sobre su constancia floral o hábitos de limpieza.

We studied the pollen loads of 13 taxa of wild bees visiting the flowers of Mimosa pigra on the influence zone of the Dam Project Porce II (Antioquia, Colombia). Out of 21 different pollen types, M. pigra represents the higuest percentage; Mimosa pudica, Piper aduncum, Solanum diversifolium, Warszewiczia coccinea and Psidium guajava, in that order, were also abundant, and are alternative sources of pollen for the different kinds of bees recorded. Among the species of bees collected, we differentiate several groups: one of them, includes seven species of bees whose pollen loads are in a high porcentaje of M. pigra (86% of pollen grains or above); another group of bees with high percentage (more than 94%) of pollen grains of Mimosa species (M. pigra and M. pudica); and the other two groups that include the bee species: Trigona dorsalis (who collected more than half of their pollen resources from M. pigra (59.4%) in addition to a high percentage of S. diversifolium (37.8%); the last kind of foragers includes Lasioglossum sp.113 who collected mostly pollen from species different to Mimosa (including P. aduncum with 61.8% of pollen grains, and W. coccinea with 36,4%) and only a small percentage of M. pigra (1,3%). In terms of the species of bees that collected a highest diversity of pollen grains, two species: Trigona muzoensis (12 pollen types) and T. dorsalis (10 pollen types) outstand other species of bees on on feeding niche and question either the bees capacity of cleaning or their floral constancy.

Effects of parentage, prior fruit set and pollen load on fruit and seed production in Campanula americana L.

We conducted a controlled crossing experiment to examine the effects of maternal and paternal parentage, the size of the pollen load, and prior fruit production on the proportion of flowers that set fruit, seed number per fruit and seed weight in a natural population of Campanula americana. Effects due to the maternal parent were large for all measures of fruit and seed production, while the paternal parent had a significant effect only upon mean seed weight. As the number of prior fruits on the maternal plant increased the probability that a flower would produce a mature fruit, the number of seeds per fruit, and total seed weight per fruit all decreased. We found no effect of the size of the pollen loads used in this study on fruit or seed production. These results are consistent with those of other studies that suggest in natural plant populations maternal effects, especially environmental maternal effects, can have an overwhelming effect on fruit and seed production and on seed characteristics.