ABSTRACT
Resumen Los niños diagnosticados con trastorno por déficit de atención e hiperactividad (TDAH) experimentan múltiples dificultades durante el aprendizaje de la lectura, en especial con los componentes del lenguaje que permiten un buen desarrollo del proceso lector. En este sentido, el interés de este trabajo fue evaluar la sintaxis y la semántica como componentes del lenguaje fundamentales para la comprensión lectora. Se aplicó la batería PROLEC-R a 37 niños (entre 6 - 13 años) diagnosticados con TDAH y se analizaron los índices principales junto a los baremos para determinar en qué componente lingüístico se ubica la mayor complejidad. Los resultados sugieren que los niños tienen mayores dificultades en lo sintáctico, referido a estructurar oraciones y aplicar los signos de puntuación. Por lo tanto, si se refuerza el componente sintáctico los niños con TDAH, podrían mejorar en la comprensión lectora.
Abstract Children diagnosed with ADHD experience multiple difficulties in learning to read, especially with the language components that allow a good development of the reading process. In this sense, the interest of this work was to evaluate syntax and semantics as fundamental components of language for reading comprehension. The PROLEC-R battery was applied to 37 children between 6 and 13 years old diagnosed with ADHD, and the main indexes were analyzed together with the scales to determine in which linguistic component was the greater complexity located. The results suggest that children in the sample have greater difficulties in syntax, referring to sentence structure and punctuation. Therefore, if the syntactic component is reinforced, children with ADHD could probably improve their reading comprehension.
ABSTRACT
La formación de clases de equivalencia entre estímulos ha sido propuesta en el campo del Análisis Experimental del Comportamiento como un prerrequisito conductual para el lenguaje. Adicionalmente, existe evidencia de que la transferencia de función entre estímulos equivalentes podría explicar la adquisición de estructuras sintácticas simples. No obstante, la simplicidad de las funciones sintácticas estudiadas no capturó la complejidad combinatoria de la gramática natural. Si la transferencia de funciones en clases de equivalencia es un modelo posible del desarrollo de estructuras gramaticales, debería ser verificado en contextos más válidos para el estudio del lenguaje. Los objetivos del trabajo realizado fueron los siguientes: (1) analizar la transferencia de funciones sintácticas en clases de equivalencia en un contexto válido para el estudio de la adquisición de reglas gramaticales, utilizando para ello el paradigma de gramáticas artificiales y (2) analizar los potenciales cerebrales relacionados con el procesamiento de esta transferencia de función, en secuencias gramaticales y no gramaticales. Se encontró evidencia comportamental de transferencia de función en un subgrupo de los sujetos experimentales. El potencial P600, típicamente asociado al costo de integración sintáctica en contextos lingüísticos, fue observado en estos sujetos ante: violaciones gramaticales con estímulos originales de la gramática artificial y secuencias con estímulos relacionados por equivalencia (gramaticales y no gramaticales). Se interpretó que el procesamiento de las secuencias artificiales implicó mecanismos neurobiológicos similares a los asociados a la sintaxis del lenguaje y que el patrón de actividad P600 observado puede ser explicado por el aumento del costo de integración de los estímulos al contexto previo.
Stimulus equivalence class formation has been proposed as a behavioral prerequisite for language within the field of experimental analysis of behavior. Additionally, there is evidence that transfer of function among equivalent stimuli may explain acquisition of simple syntactic structures. However these experiments analyzed sequence functions that did not capture the complexity and versatility of natural grammar. If transfer of function between stimuli that belong to the same equivalence classes is indeed a useful model for the development of grammatical structures, then we should be able to verify it in a more valid context for the study of language. Artificial grammar learning tasks have been applied to the study of several aspects of language acquisition, from word segmentation to phrase structure and syntax rules. Furthermore, it has been shown that patterns of brain activity during processing of artificial grammars resemble those observed in language syntax processing. In particular, structural violations of language sentences and artificial grammar sequences both activate Broca's area. Therefore, artificial grammars provide a valid paradigm to study the learning of syntactic functions. The main objectives of the current work were: (1) to analyze transfer of function within equivalence classes in a valid context for the study of syntax acquisition, applying the artificial grammar paradigm and (2) to analyze brain potentials related to the transfer of function in grammatical and ungrammatical sequences. Fifteen subjects were trained to form two three-stimulus equivalence classes and then performed an artificial grammar learning task. One stimulus from each equivalence class was included as an item in the artificial grammar categories. During a test stage, subjects were asked to classify new artificial grammar sequences as grammatical or ungrammatical, while their EEG activity was registered. Half of these new sequences were built using the original training items and the other half contained equivalence-related stimulus. Subjects were assigned to two groups according to their performance in this test stage. Those participants whose percentage of correct responses was above 50 % were considered to pass, while those below were assigned to the fail group. We found behavioral evidence of transfer of function in the pass subgroup. These participants were able to correctly discriminate grammatical from un grammatical sequences that were built using original or equivalence-related stimulus. Event-Related potential Analysis of the EEG signal indicated a posteriorly distributed positivity with a topography and time-course similar to the P600 potential. Within linguistic contexts, P600 is interpreted as the neural correlate of prediction and integration costs during syntax processing. It has been proposed that sentence comprehension depends on predictive mechanisms that combine lexical, semantic and syntactic information from linguistic input to anticipate future words. Processing of incoming stimuli is facilitated by pre- activation, allowing rapid integration to previous context. However, when the input does not match predictions, this integration becomes slower and more difficult, requiring additional neural resources. The P600 has been considered and index of increased integration costs, generated by unfulfilled predictions of word category and morphology based on previous context. In the present experiment, the P600 was observed after: grammar violations with the original artificial grammar lexicon and artificial sequences containing equivalence-related stimulus (both grammatical and ungrammatical). Results showed that artificial grammar processing involved neurobiological mechanisms that are similar to those associated in natural grammar processing. We interpreted the observed P600 pattern in terms of an increased stimulus integration cost, both in the case of grammatical and ungrammatical equivalence-related stimulus. Even though we consider that transference of function and equivalence class formations are by themselves insufficient to explain the complexity of natural grammar, we propose that this processes might be relevant to its acquisition and evolution, constituting a behavioral prerequisite for language development.
ABSTRACT
La formación de clases de equivalencia entre estímulos ha sido propuesta en el campo del Análisis Experimental del Comportamiento como un prerrequisito conductual para el lenguaje. Adicionalmente, existe evidencia de que la transferencia de función entre estímulos equivalentes podría explicar la adquisición de estructuras sintácticas simples. No obstante, la simplicidad de las funciones sintácticas estudiadas no capturó la complejidad combinatoria de la gramática natural. Si la transferencia de funciones en clases de equivalencia es un modelo posible del desarrollo de estructuras gramaticales, debería ser verificado en contextos más válidos para el estudio del lenguaje. Los objetivos del trabajo realizado fueron los siguientes: (1) analizar la transferencia de funciones sintácticas en clases de equivalencia en un contexto válido para el estudio de la adquisición de reglas gramaticales, utilizando para ello el paradigma de gramáticas artificiales y (2) analizar los potenciales cerebrales relacionados con el procesamiento de esta transferencia de función, en secuencias gramaticales y no gramaticales. Se encontró evidencia comportamental de transferencia de función en un subgrupo de los sujetos experimentales. El potencial P600, típicamente asociado al costo de integración sintáctica en contextos ling³ísticos, fue observado en estos sujetos ante: violaciones gramaticales con estímulos originales de la gramática artificial y secuencias con estímulos relacionados por equivalencia (gramaticales y no gramaticales). Se interpretó que el procesamiento de las secuencias artificiales implicó mecanismos neurobiológicos similares a los asociados a la sintaxis del lenguaje y que el patrón de actividad P600 observado puede ser explicado por el aumento del costo de integración de los estímulos al contexto previo.(AU)
Stimulus equivalence class formation has been proposed as a behavioral prerequisite for language within the field of experimental analysis of behavior. Additionally, there is evidence that transfer of function among equivalent stimuli may explain acquisition of simple syntactic structures. However these experiments analyzed sequence functions that did not capture the complexity and versatility of natural grammar. If transfer of function between stimuli that belong to the same equivalence classes is indeed a useful model for the development of grammatical structures, then we should be able to verify it in a more valid context for the study of language. Artificial grammar learning tasks have been applied to the study of several aspects of language acquisition, from word segmentation to phrase structure and syntax rules. Furthermore, it has been shown that patterns of brain activity during processing of artificial grammars resemble those observed in language syntax processing. In particular, structural violations of language sentences and artificial grammar sequences both activate Brocas area. Therefore, artificial grammars provide a valid paradigm to study the learning of syntactic functions. The main objectives of the current work were: (1) to analyze transfer of function within equivalence classes in a valid context for the study of syntax acquisition, applying the artificial grammar paradigm and (2) to analyze brain potentials related to the transfer of function in grammatical and ungrammatical sequences. Fifteen subjects were trained to form two three-stimulus equivalence classes and then performed an artificial grammar learning task. One stimulus from each equivalence class was included as an item in the artificial grammar categories. During a test stage, subjects were asked to classify new artificial grammar sequences as grammatical or ungrammatical, while their EEG activity was registered. Half of these new sequences were built using the original training items and the other half contained equivalence-related stimulus. Subjects were assigned to two groups according to their performance in this test stage. Those participants whose percentage of correct responses was above 50 % were considered to pass, while those below were assigned to the fail group. We found behavioral evidence of transfer of function in the pass subgroup. These participants were able to correctly discriminate grammatical from un grammatical sequences that were built using original or equivalence-related stimulus. Event-Related potential Analysis of the EEG signal indicated a posteriorly distributed positivity with a topography and time-course similar to the P600 potential. Within linguistic contexts, P600 is interpreted as the neural correlate of prediction and integration costs during syntax processing. It has been proposed that sentence comprehension depends on predictive mechanisms that combine lexical, semantic and syntactic information from linguistic input to anticipate future words. Processing of incoming stimuli is facilitated by pre- activation, allowing rapid integration to previous context. However, when the input does not match predictions, this integration becomes slower and more difficult, requiring additional neural resources. The P600 has been considered and index of increased integration costs, generated by unfulfilled predictions of word category and morphology based on previous context. In the present experiment, the P600 was observed after: grammar violations with the original artificial grammar lexicon and artificial sequences containing equivalence-related stimulus (both grammatical and ungrammatical). Results showed that artificial grammar processing involved neurobiological mechanisms that are similar to those associated in natural grammar processing. We interpreted the observed P600 pattern in terms of an increased stimulus integration cost, both in the case of grammatical and ungrammatical equivalence-related stimulus. Even though we consider that transference of function and equivalence class formations are by themselves insufficient to explain the complexity of natural grammar, we propose that this processes might be relevant to its acquisition and evolution, constituting a behavioral prerequisite for language development.(AU)
ABSTRACT
La comprensión de oraciones y sus alteraciones han sido explicadas en términos de limitaciones de memoria de trabajo. Ahora bien, algunas posturas plantean la existencia de una memoria de trabajo específica para la comprensión sintáctica, en tanto que el enfoque opuesto sostiene que los procesos sintácticos se llevan a cabo merced a recursos generales de memoria de trabajo. La presente revisión tiene por objeto comparar estas dos posturas: la primera, que se sustenta en el supuesto de la modularidad de los procesos sintácticos (la Teoría de los Recursos Separados); y, la segunda, que se basa en una hipótesis general, no específica de dominio (Teoría de la Capacidad Restringida) . Se presentan ambos enfoques, se discuten críticamente sus alcances y limitaciones. Se concluye en la necesidad de contar con modelos explícitos de memoria de trabajo, así como también de estudios experimentales en otras lenguas distintas del inglés, como el español.