Diet quality and snack preferences of Turkish adolescents in private and public schools.

Introduction: Socioeconomic level is one of the important factors determining diet quality. Snack preferences are affected by socioeconomic level. The objective of this research was to determine the effect of socioeconomic levels on diet quality and snack preferences among adolescents from different socioeconomic backgrounds. Methods: The study involved 118 adolescents aged between 10-18 years residing in Istanbul. A questionnaire prepared by the researchers was used to obtain information on the adolescents' dietary habits, consumption of main meals and snacks, habits, and food consumption records. The participants' food consumption was assessed using the retrospective 24-hour recall method, and diet quality was evaluated using the calculated nutrient adequacy ratio (NAR) and mean adequacy ratio (MAR). Results: The mean age of the adolescents was 16.42±0.89 years. The number of snacks consumed in private schools was found to be higher than in public schools (p < 0.05). The NAR score for vitamin C consumption was significantly higher in private schools compared to public schools (p < 0.05). Although the MAR scores of adolescents in private schools were higher than those in public schools, this difference was not statistically significant. The majority of adolescents in private schools regularly consumed fresh fruit (67.2%), milk (60.3%), yogurt (60.3%), and nuts (56.9%) as snacks. In contrast, 45% of adolescents in public schools regularly consumed pastries (p < 0.05). Discussion: It was observed that adolescents studying in public schools had a lower tendency to prefer healthy foods for snacks compared to those in private schools. Socioeconomic level was identified as an important factor influencing eating habits during adolescence. Considering that the level of income is significantly different between the adolescents studying at private and public schools, the higher consumption of snacks by the adolescents studying at private school may be associated with higher income.

Snack consumption frequency of children and adults in the Vaal region of Gauteng, South Africa.

Background: Energy-dense, nutrient-poor snacks are associated with an increased risk of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and the double burden of malnutrition, especially among poor communities. Aim: To determine and compare the snacking preferences and consumption frequency of children and adults from a low SES community in South Africa. Setting: A preschool, primary school, and an elderly centre in Gauteng. Methods: A cross-sectional study with a convenience sample of 90 children (3-8 years) and 100 adults (≥ 18 years) to assess snack consumption frequency and preferences of children and adults by means of a snack survey. Mann-Whitney U test was used to determine the differences in preferences and snack consumption frequency of children and adults. Results: The most preferred and consumed snacks included fruits, potato chips, corn chips, sweets, and cookies. Children frequently ate more potato chips (p < 0.001), corn chips (p < 0.001), cheese curls (p < 0.001), and muffins (p = 0.024) than adults. In contrast, adults frequently consumed more peanuts or nuts (p = 0.024), savoury biscuits (p = 0.048) and biltong (p < 0.001) than children. Conclusion: Apart from fruits, the most preferred and frequently consumed snacks by the sample were highly processed snacks, which are low in fibre and high in added sugars, saturated fat, and sodium. Contributions: Findings from this study highlight current snack trends and can guide future nutrition education interventions on healthy snacking and in developing nutritious snacks for the South African community.

Socioeconomic, intrapersonal and food environmental correlates of unhealthy snack consumption in school-going adolescents in Mumbai.

BACKGROUND: Unhealthy snacking habits in adolescents are typically triggered by obesogenic food environments and possibly perpetuated through interactions between socio-environmental factors and personal perceptions, attitudes, and motivations to change eating behaviors. This study attempted to address the knowledge gap regarding the association of intrapersonal, socioeconomic, and food environmental characteristics with unhealthy snack consumption in Indian adolescents, presenting several targets for effective interventions. METHODS: A representative sample of 10-12 years old adolescents (n 712) completed a cross-sectional survey including eating habits, characteristics of school and home food environments, and perceptions related to affordability, convenience, and barriers within the food environments. The frequency of unhealthy snack consumption was assessed using a validated qualitative food frequency questionnaire. Multivariate regression analyses determined the associated factors of unhealthy snack consumption in adolescents attending private and public schools. RESULTS: The mean age of adolescents was 10.9 (1.1) years, 48.2% were girls and 53.9% attended private schools. The most frequently consumed unhealthy snacks were biscuits/ cookies (5.2d/wk) followed by wafers (3.4d/wk) and Indian fried snacks- samosa/ vada pav (2.8 d/wk). Among the public-school adolescents, the odds of unhealthy snack consumption were 0.89 times lower when meals were had frequently at the dinner table and 4.97 times higher when the perceived barriers related to the affordability of healthy snacks were greater. Maternal education (OR 0.78, 95% CI 0.66-0.82, p < 0.001), family income (OR 2.15, 95% CI 1.98-2.32, p < 0.001), availability of unhealthy snacks (OR 2.98, 95% CI 1.36-3.46, p < 0.001) and fruits (OR 0.57, 95% CI 0.49-0.69, p < 0.001) at home, having evening meals together (OR 0.71, 95% CI 0.63-0.81, p 0.031), and perceived parental control during mealtimes (OR 0.67, 95% CI 0.62-0.72, p < 0.001) were associated with unhealthy snack consumption in adolescents attending private schools. CONCLUSIONS: The results highlighted a pervasiveness of unhealthy snacks in adolescents' food environments. Improving provisions and affordability of fruits and healthy snacks at schools, encouraging family mealtimes, and limiting the availability of unhealthy snacks at home whilst addressing the perceived barriers within food environments, and inculcating self-efficacy skills can improve snacking habits in Indian adolescents, irrespective of socioeconomic backgrounds.

Is the Suppression Effect of the Color Red on Snack Food Consumption Reliable?

Two articles hypothesized that exposure to the color red would induce a state of avoidance motivation and reported that snack food consumption was decreased when the food was served on red plates, relative to white and blue plates. The current experiment combined their procedures and approximately tripled their group sizes. Participants were provided with pretzels on red, white, or blue plates in a mock sensory analysis task. The results indicated that more pretzels were consumed when presented on red plates, in direct contradiction of previous results. Alternative explanations, such as group differences in hunger or preference for pretzels, could not account for the results. The facilitation effect of red indicates that the color red does not always reduce snack food consumption and suggests that the reported inhibitory effect of red on snack consumption may not be reliable.

Compensatory health beliefs and unhealthy snack consumption in daily life.

Compensatory health beliefs (CHBs) are beliefs that an unhealthy behavior (unhealthy eating) can be compensated for by engaging in a healthy behavior (physical activity). Previous research focused on CHBs as rather stable beliefs (trait). Some studies indicated that situation-specific CHBs (state) might be important in situations, in which people are confronted with an unhealthy snack. This study aims to investigate the association between CHBs and unhealthy snack consumption in daily life with a special focus on the distinction between trait and state CHBs. Overall, N = 45 participants (66.7% female; age: 18-45 years, M = 21.9) received a link to an online questionnaire five times daily for seven consecutive days (n = 1575 possible diary entries). They reported unhealthy snack consumption, state and trait CHBs concerning the compensation with subsequent eating behavior and physical activity. The results showed that trait and state CHBs were significantly positively related to unhealthy snack consumption in daily life. Different effects appeared for CHBs concerning the compensation with subsequent eating behavior compared to the compensation with physical activity. This study demonstrates that both, state and trait CHBs are important for unhealthy snack consumption in daily life. Findings emphasize the need for further daily diary approaches to understand the temporal sequence of state CHBs that could further explain the use of CHBs as a maladaptive strategy for unhealthy eating.

Can Visual Cues to Portion Size Reduce the Number of Portions of Consumed? Two Randomized Controlled Trials.

BACKGROUND: Since 1950, the portion size of many snack foods has more than doubled and obesity rates have tripled. Portion size determines energy intake, often unwittingly. PURPOSE: This paper tests whether salient visual cues to portion size on the packaging of high fat, sugar, or salty (HFSS) snacks can reduce consumption. METHODS: Two preregistered randomized controlled trials (N = 253 and N = 674) measured consumption in a lab and the home environment. Cues were salient, labeled stripes that demarcated single portions. Participants were randomized to cue condition or control. Consumption was measured without awareness. RESULTS: The main preregistered effect of the visual cue was not statistically significant. There was some variation by subgroup. In Study 1, men were more likely to eat the whole can of potato chips than women but significantly reduced consumption when visual cues were on the pack. The effect size was large: the number of men eating more than the recommended portion fell by 33%. Study 2 monitored household consumption of chocolate biscuits (cookies) sent to family homes in gift packs. Again, the main effect was nonsignificant but there was significant subgroup variation. When the person receiving the biscuits was female, households were more likely to eat more than the recommended portion per person per day, but less likely when the visual cues were displayed. The gender of the eaters was not known. The effect size was again large: the number of households eating more than the recommended portion fell by 26%. Households with children were also less likely to open packs with visual cues compared to control packs. Both studies recorded significant increases in the likelihood of observing serving size information, together with confusion about what it means. CONCLUSIONS: The studies offer some evidence that salient visual cues could play a role in tackling the high consumption of unhealthy snacks, but the effects are confined to specific subgroups and warrant further investigation.

Family Factors Associated with Selected Childhood Nutrition Aspects in Central Poland.

Childhood diet has a significant influence on diet-related diseases in adulthood, so an understanding of environmental influences on nutrition, is important. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to indicate family factors associated with some aspects of children's nutrition in Central Poland. A questionnaire was used to investigate 892 mothers' approach to breastfeeding, frequency of eating with children at fast food restaurants, and serving them snacks, sugary drinks, and fried food. Prevalence of dental caries among children, based on the mothers' self-assessment, was also assessed. Majority of the mothers breastfed for a period not longer than six months. There was a positive association between breastfeeding duration and mothers' education level and the number of children in a family. Sweets were used as a reward, more often among younger children and in families with higher number of children. The frequency of consumption of sweet beverages rose with the child's age and decreased with mother's education level and family income. It was also more frequent in rural areas. Most children received snacks and fried food at least once a week. There was a negative association between eating with parents at fast food restaurants and, both, the number of children in the family and living in a village. Fast food consumption rose with the mother's education level and family income. Prevalence of dental caries according to mothers' declarations was much lower than in national studies but was associated with frequent consumption of snacks and sweet beverages in the examined population. Extensive activities to reduce the occurrence of dental caries at the national level and education concerning the role of a family environment in providing a proper childhood nutrition, with a special emphasis on breastfeeding benefits, seems necessary for Polish parents. Designing community-wide education campaigns referencing population-based programs and other health and disease prevention activities, need to be promoted.

Physical activity-equivalent label reduces consumption of discretionary snack foods.

OBJECTIVE: The present research aimed to investigate the impact of the physical activity calorie equivalent (PACE) front-of-pack label on consumption, prospective consumption and liking of familiar and unfamiliar discretionary snack foods. DESIGN: In a within-subject randomised design, participants tasted and rated liking (9-point hedonic scale) and prospective consumption (9-point category scale) of four different snack foods with four different labels (i.e. blank, fake, PACE, PACE doubled) and four control snack foods. The twenty snack foods were presented during two 45 min sessions (i.e. ten snack foods per session) which were separated by one week. The amount participants sampled of each snack food was measured. SETTING: The study was conducted in the Centre for Advanced Sensory Sciences laboratory at Deakin University, Australia. SUBJECTS: The participants were 153 university students (126 females, twenty-seven males, mean age 24·3 (sd 4·9) years) currently enrolled in an undergraduate nutrition degree at Deakin University. RESULTS: When the PACE label was present on familiar snack foods, participants sampled 9·9 % (22·8 (sem 1·4) v. 25·3 (sem 1·5) g, P=0·03) less than when such label was not present. This was in line with a decreased prospective snack food consumption of 9·1 % (3·0 (sem 0·2) v. 3·3 (sem 0·2) servings, P=0·03). Such pattern was not seen in unfamiliar snacks. CONCLUSIONS: The PACE label appears to be a promising way to decrease familiar discretionary snack food consumption in young, health-minded participants.

Does food advertising influence snacks consumption in Chilean children? Results from an experimental ad libitum study

The present study aimed at assessing the impact of food advertising on snack consumption in Chilean children using an experimental, ad libitum, design. Forty children were enrolled in urban, middle class, school setting. They underwent anthropometric assessment, brand awareness evaluation, and their lifestyle and habits were recorded through a validated questionnaire administered to their parents. A 5-arm design was adopted, consisting in the exposure to five different levels of TV spots and advertising. No significant differences were identified in caloric intake among children randomized to different levels of TV spots and commercials exposure. No significant effects on caloric intake, caloric intake per BMI, and or glycemic load were detected, even after adjustment for confounding factors. This study suggests the need for a better analysis of the contribution of non-traditional factors to obesity onset in children, which can provide high-quality evidence in order to develop effective public health strategies to face childhood obesity epidemic(AU)

El presente estudio tuvo como objetivo evaluar el impacto de la publicidad de alimentos en el consumo colaciones en los niños chilenos mediante la utilización de un diseño experimental basado en la voluntad de los participantes (ad libitum). Se realizó la inscripción de cuarenta niños en el contexto de una escuela urbana de clase media. Se les realizó una evaluación antropométrica, un examen de reconocimiento de marca y se procedió a registrar información sobre su estilo de vida y hábitos mediante un cuestionario validado que fue entregado a los padres y firmado por los mismos. Se adoptó un diseño de 5 grupos, que consistía en evaluar la exposición a cinco niveles diferentes de publicidad y clips televisivos. No se identificaron diferencias significativas en cuanto a la ingesta calórica entre los niños asignados aleatoriamente a diferentes niveles de exposición a clips televisivos y a anuncios publicitarios. No se detectaron efectos significativos en tanto a la ingesta calórica, ingesta calórica por IMC, o la carga glucémica, incluso después de realizar el ajuste por factores de confusión. El presente estudio sugiere la necesidad de un mayor análisis respecto de la incidencia de factores no tradicionales en la aparición de la obesidad en los niños, que proporcione evidencia de alta calidad con el fin de desarrollar estrategias eficaces en materia de salud pública ante la epidemia de obesidad infantil(AU)

Is snack consumption associated with meal skipping in children and adolescents? The CASPIAN-IV study.

PURPOSE: The present inquiry set to assess the relationship between snack consumption and meal skipping in Iranian children and adolescents. METHODS: Overall, 14,880 students, aged 6-18 years, were selected via multistage cluster sampling method from rural and urban areas of 30 provinces of Iran. A validated questionnaire of food behaviors including questions on snacks consumption and taking/skipping meals was completed. Consuming and skipping meals and their related factors were reported in both crude and adjusted models. RESULTS: Overall, 13,486 students with a mean age of 12.47 ± 3.36 years completed the study (90.6% participation rate). Among them, 32.08, 8.89, and 10.90% skipped breakfast, lunch, and dinner, respectively. Compared to their counterpart groups, the frequency of meal skipping was higher in girls, urban inhabitants, and students in higher school grades (P < 0.05). Snack consumption was associated with an increased odds ratio of meal skipping in many types of snack groups. CONCLUSIONS: Meal skipping and snack consumption were frequent among Iranian children and adolescents. Evidence based interventions are proposed to improve the students' eating habits.

Effects of preparatory and action planning instructions on situation-specific and general fruit and snack intake.

Evidence to date suggests heterogeneity in the effects of implementation intentions on health behaviour, including diet. Additional variables and study designs may impact on their effectiveness. Preparatory action, such as making sure fruits are available for consumption, may be an important additional variable. Likewise, most implementation intention research has focused on changes in general intake, yet implementation intention instructions typically require participants to consider behaviour in specific situations. Little is known on how implementation intentions impact situation-specific intake. The present study sought to add to the evidence base by comparing (1) the effects of action planning instructions versus preparatory planning instructions on (2) both situation-specific (as formulated in the implementation intention instruction) and general intake of fruits and in-between meal snack intake frequency. Fruit intake was assessed in average pieces per day, whereas snacking intake was assessed as average frequency in days per week. Using non-probability sampling, 243 undergraduate students who intended to have a healthy diet were randomized to either a standard information control condition, an action planning condition, or a preparatory planning condition. Planning manipulations were based on previous work. Two weeks later, general and situation-specific intake was assessed again in 181 participants. Data were analysed using 2 (time) x 3 (conditions) analyses of variance. Results showed that both planning manipulations were successful in decreasing snack intake frequency in the specified situation, with larger effect sizes for the action planning condition than for the preparatory planning condition. No effects were found on general snack intake frequency or fruit intake. Future planning interventions should more explicitly compare changes in situational and general intake, as well as simultaneously assessed decreases in unhealthy intake and increases in healthy intake.

Mind the Gap? An Intensive Longitudinal Study of Between-Person and Within-Person Intention-Behavior Relations.

BACKGROUND: Despite their good intentions, people often do not eat healthily. This is known as the intention-behavior gap. Although the intention-behavior relationship is theorized as a within-person process, most evidence is based on between-person differences. PURPOSE: The purpose of the present study is to investigate the within-person intention-behavior association for unhealthy snack consumption. METHODS: Young adults (N = 45) participated in an intensive longitudinal study. They reported intentions and snack consumption five times daily for 7 days (n = 1068 observations analyzed). RESULTS: A within-person unit difference in intentions was associated with a halving of the number of unhealthy snacks consumed in the following 3 h (CI95 27-70 %). Between-person differences in average intentions did not predict unhealthy snack consumption. CONCLUSIONS: Consistent with theory, the intention-behavior relation for healthy eating is best understood as a within-person process. Interventions to reduce unhealthy snacking should target times of day when intentions are weakest.

Investigating sex differences in psychological predictors of snack intake among a large representative sample.

OBJECTIVE: It is often assumed that there are substantial sex differences in eating behaviour (e.g. women are more likely to be dieters or emotional eaters than men). The present study investigates this assumption in a large representative community sample while incorporating a comprehensive set of psychological eating-related variables. DESIGN: A community sample was employed to: (i) determine sex differences in (un)healthy snack consumption and psychological eating-related variables (e.g. emotional eating, intention to eat healthily); (ii) examine whether sex predicts energy intake from (un)healthy snacks over and above psychological variables; and (iii) investigate the relationship between psychological variables and snack intake for men and women separately. Snack consumption was assessed with a 7d snack diary; the psychological eating-related variables with questionnaires. SETTING: Participants were members of an Internet survey panel that is based on a true probability sample of households in the Netherlands. SUBJECTS: Men and women (n 1292; 45 % male), with a mean age of 51·23 (sd 16·78) years and a mean BMI of 25·62 (sd 4·75) kg/m2. RESULTS: Results revealed that women consumed more healthy and less unhealthy snacks than men and they scored higher than men on emotional and restrained eating. Women also more often reported appearance and health-related concerns about their eating behaviour, but men and women did not differ with regard to external eating or their intentions to eat more healthily. The relationships between psychological eating-related variables and snack intake were similar for men and women, indicating that snack intake is predicted by the same variables for men and women. CONCLUSIONS: It is concluded that some small sex differences in psychological eating-related variables exist, but based on the present data there is no need for interventions aimed at promoting healthy eating to target different predictors according to sex.

From perceived autonomy support to intentional behaviour: Testing an integrated model in three healthy-eating behaviours.

A motivational model integrating self-determination theory, the theory of planned behaviour, and the health action process approach was tested in three samples in three behavioural contexts: fruit and vegetable, breakfast, and snack consumption. Perceived support for autonomous (self-determined) forms of motivation from parents and autonomous motivation from self-determination theory were hypothesised to predict intention and behaviour indirectly via the mediation of attitude and perceived behavioural control from the theory of planned behaviour. It was also expected that planning strategies would mediate the effect of intention on behaviour. Relations in the proposed models were expected to be similar across the behaviours. A two-wave prospective design was adopted. Three samples of high-school students (total N = 1041; 59.60% female; M age = 17.13 years ± 1.57) completed measures of perceived autonomy support, autonomous motivation, theory of planned behaviour constructs, planning strategies and behaviour for each of the three behavioural contexts. Three months later, 816 participants (62,24% female; M age: 17.13 years, SD = 1.58) of the initial sample self-reported their behaviour referred to the previous three months. Structural equation models provided support for the key hypothesised effects of the proposed model for the three health-related behaviours. Two direct effects were significantly different across the three behaviours: the effect of perceived autonomy support on perceived behavioural control and the effect of attitude on intention. In addition, planning strategies mediated the effect of intention on behaviour in fruit and vegetable sample only. Findings extend knowledge of the processes by which psychological antecedents from the theories affect energy-balance related behaviours.

Habitual sleep variability, not sleep duration, is associated with caloric intake in adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to investigate the associations between objectively measured habitual sleep duration (HSD), habitual sleep variability (HSV), and energy and snack intake in adolescents. METHODS: We used data from 324 adolescents who participated in the Penn State Child Cohort follow-up examination. Actigraphy was used over seven consecutive nights to estimate nightly sleep duration. The seven-night mean and standard deviation of sleep duration were used to represent HSD and HSV, respectively. The Youth/Adolescent Food Frequency Questionnaire was used to obtain the daily average total energy, protein, fat, and carbohydrate intake, and number of snacks consumed. Linear regression models were used to investigate the associations between habitual sleep patterns and caloric, protein, fat, and carbohydrate intake. Proportional odds models were used to associate habitual sleep patterns with snack consumption. RESULTS: After adjusting for age, sex, race, body mass index (BMI) percentile, and smoking status, an increased HSV was associated with a higher energy intake, particularly from fat and carbohydrate. For example, with a 1-h increase in HSV, there was a 170 (66)-kcal increase in the daily total energy intake. An increased HSV was also related to increased snack consumption, especially snacks consumed after dinner. For instance, a 1-h increase in HSV was associated with 65% and 94% higher odds of consuming more snacks after dinner during school/workdays and weekends/vacation days, respectively. Neither energy intake nor snack consumption was significantly related to HSD. CONCLUSION: High habitual sleep variability, not habitual sleep duration, is related to increased energy and food consumption in adolescents. Maintaining a regular sleep pattern may decrease the risk of obesity in adolescents.

Short- and medium-term efficacy of a Web-based computer-tailored nutrition education intervention for adults including cognitive and environmental feedback: randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Web-based, computer-tailored nutrition education interventions can be effective in modifying self-reported dietary behaviors. Traditional computer-tailored programs primarily targeted individual cognitions (knowledge, awareness, attitude, self-efficacy). Tailoring on additional variables such as self-regulation processes and environmental-level factors (the home food environment arrangement and perception of availability and prices of healthy food products in supermarkets) may improve efficacy and effect sizes (ES) of Web-based computer-tailored nutrition education interventions. OBJECTIVE: This study evaluated the short- and medium-term efficacy and educational differences in efficacy of a cognitive and environmental feedback version of a Web-based computer-tailored nutrition education intervention on self-reported fruit, vegetable, high-energy snack, and saturated fat intake compared to generic nutrition information in the total sample and among participants who did not comply with dietary guidelines (the risk groups). METHODS: A randomized controlled trial was conducted with a basic (tailored intervention targeting individual cognition and self-regulation processes; n=456), plus (basic intervention additionally targeting environmental-level factors; n=459), and control (generic nutrition information; n=434) group. Participants were recruited from the general population and randomly assigned to a study group. Self-reported fruit, vegetable, high-energy snack, and saturated fat intake were assessed at baseline and at 1- (T1) and 4-months (T2) postintervention using online questionnaires. Linear mixed model analyses examined group differences in change over time. Educational differences were examined with group×time×education interaction terms. RESULTS: In the total sample, the basic (T1: ES=-0.30; T2: ES=-0.18) and plus intervention groups (T1: ES=-0.29; T2: ES=-0.27) had larger decreases in high-energy snack intake than the control group. The basic version resulted in a larger decrease in saturated fat intake than the control intervention (T1: ES=-0.19; T2: ES=-0.17). In the risk groups, the basic version caused larger decreases in fat (T1: ES=-0.28; T2: ES=-0.28) and high-energy snack intake (T1: ES=-0.34; T2: ES=-0.20) than the control intervention. The plus version resulted in a larger increase in fruit (T1: ES=0.25; T2: ES=0.37) and a larger decrease in high-energy snack intake (T1: ES=-0.38; T2: ES=-0.32) than the control intervention. For high-energy snack intake, educational differences were found. Stratified analyses showed that the plus version was most effective for high-educated participants. CONCLUSIONS: Both intervention versions were more effective in improving some of the self-reported dietary behaviors than generic nutrition information, especially in the risk groups, among both higher- and lower-educated participants. For fruit intake, only the plus version was more effective than providing generic nutrition information. Although feasible, incorporating environmental-level information is time-consuming. Therefore, the basic version may be more feasible for further implementation, although inclusion of feedback on the arrangement of the home food environment and on availability and prices may be considered for fruit and, for high-educated people, for high-energy snack intake. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Netherlands Trial Registry NTR3396; http://www.trialregister.nl/trialreg/admin/rctview.asp?TC=3396 (Archived by WebCite at http://www.webcitation.org/6VNZbdL6w).

U.S. adults and child snacking patterns among sugar-sweetened beverage drinkers and non-drinkers.

OBJECTIVE: To provide national estimates of snack patterns for sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) drinkers and non-SSB drinkers among U.S. children and adults. METHODS: We analyzed 24-h dietary recall data obtained from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999-2010 among children (ages 2 to 19) and adults (aged 20 and older) (N=46,932). RESULTS: For children and adults, SSB drinkers were significantly more likely than non-SSB drinkers to consume snacks (children: salty, 60% vs. 50%; sweet, 69% vs. 65%; adults: salty, 64% vs. 58%; sweet, 64% vs. 58%), calories from snacks (children: salty snacks, 258 vs. 213 kcal; sweet snacks, 322 vs. 291 kcal; adults: salty snacks, 261 vs. 236 kcal; sweet snacks, 370 vs. 350 kcal), and total calories (children: 2098 vs. 1,804 kcal; adults: 2329 vs. 2,049 kcal) (p<0.05). Among adolescents, Blacks had a significantly higher percentage of SSB drinkers and salty snack consumers than Whites and Hispanics (SSB consumers: White, 79%; Black, 86%; Hispanic, 82%; salty snack consumers: White, 56%; Black, 62%; Hispanic, 54%; p<0.05). All ages were more likely to consume sweet snacks at home (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Adults and children who drink SSBs are more likely to snack and consume more calories from snacks than non-SSB drinkers, particularly Black adolescents and young adults.

Adolescents' eating behaviour in general and in the peer context: testing the prototype-willingness model.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the prototype-willingness model (PWM) for eating behaviour in general and in the peer context in order to gain further evidence on the PWM and social-reactive processes in adolescents' eating behaviour. DESIGN: A longitudinal study was conducted. PWM variables for unhealthy and healthy eating were assessed at baseline in 356 adolescents (mean age 12.61 years). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Eating behaviour was measured four weeks after baseline by two indicators: general eating pattern index (self-report) and consumption of unhealthy and healthy snacks in the peer context (behavioural observation). For both, structural equation models were conducted introducing PWM variables for either unhealthy or healthy eating. RESULTS: The PWM was mainly confirmed for the eating pattern index; intention, willingness and prototype perception had direct effects. Differences between unhealthy and healthy eating were found. Moreover, the PWM contributed to the prediction of healthy, but not unhealthy, snack consumption over and above current hunger; willingness had a direct effect. CONCLUSIONS: The PWM can be applied to predict and understand adolescents' eating behaviour. Social-reactive processes, namely willingness and prototype perception, are behavioural determinants that should be considered in theory and as novel targets in health promotion interventions.

The association of snack consumption, lifestyle factors, and pediatric obesity with dietary behavior patterns in male adolescents / 한국영양학회지

PURPOSE: Along with the adaptation of a Western dietary pattern and low physical activity, pediatric obesity is increasing in Korea, especially for boys. The aim of this study was to identify dietary behavior patterns and examine the snack consumption, dietary habit, and pediatric obesity by pattern groups. METHODS: Boys aged 15~19 years were recruited from one high school in Seoul. A questionnaire including dietary behaviors and lifestyle factors was administered and height and weight were measured. A total of 932 boys participated except boys who had missing or incomplete response (n = 30). Three dietary behavior patterns were identified by cluster analysis; 'Healthy pattern', 'Mixed pattern' and 'Unhealthy pattern'. RESULTS: Snack consumption differed according to dietary behavior patterns group. The healthy and mixed patterns showed higher frequencies of white milk and fruit consumption while the unhealthy pattern as well as the mixed patterns showed higher frequencies of sweetened snack and ice cream consumption. Food availability at home of each food differed according to pattern groups but showed a similar trend with food consumption. Regarding dietary habits, the mixed pattern showed higher proportion of taking dietary supplement and eating dessert while the unhealthy pattern showed lower proportion of eating regular meals and appropriate amount of meals. When the healthy pattern was set as a reference group, the odds ratio of pediatric obesity was 1.11 (CI 0.65-1.87) in the mixed pattern group and 1.88 (CI 1.14-3.10) in the unhealthy pattern group. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, dietary behaviors including snack consumption and lifestyle factors were connected. Unbalanced diet and undesirable dietary practice are important determinants in pediatric obesity.

A study of snack consumption, night-eating habits, and nutrient intake in gestational diabetes mellitus.

This study was performed to identify dietary behavior such as snack consumption, night-eating and nutrients intake associated with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). The study was conducted on 219 normal glucose tolerance (NGT) subjects and 44 GDM subjects by using a questionnaire including dietary behavior, food frequency and 3-day food record. The mean age, OGTT, and delivery weight of GDM subjects were statistically higher than those in NGT. A larger proportion of NGT subjects consumed black coffee (49.8%) while the majority of GDM subjects (61.4%) drank mixed coffee with sugar and cream. Dairy products were the most frequently consumed snack item in NGT subjects (40.7%), while fruits were most frequently consumed food item in GDM subjects (34.4%). Many of NGT subjects (49.8%) answered that they hardly took night-eating snacks whereas most of GDM subjects (61.4%) took night-eating snacks more than once a week. For change of taste preference, the proportion of NGT subjects who showed less preference for salty taste (33.3%) or greasy taste (16.9%) was higher than that of GDM subjects (11.4%). Nutrient intakes of energy, fat, cholesterol, saturated fatty acid (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA), polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), carbohydrate, vitamin B(1), vitamin B(2), vitamin C, and vitamin E in GDM group were significantly higher than those in NGT group. Nutrient densities of SFA and vitamin C in GDM group were higher and nutrient density of calcium was lower than those in NGT group. Taken together, it is recommended to reduce night-eating snack and choose less salty and fatty foods, black-coffee rather than coffee with cream and sugar, and more dairy products to prevent GDM.