Amphibian spatial cognition, medial pallium and other supporting telencephalic structures.

Vertebrate hippocampal formation is central to conversations on the comparative analysis of spatial cognition, especially in light of variation found in different vertebrate classes. Assuming the medial pallium (MP) of extant amphibians resembles the hippocampal formation (HF) of ancestral stem tetrapods, we propose that the HF of modern amniotes began with a MP characterized by a relatively undifferentiated cytoarchitecture, more direct thalamic/olfactory sensory inputs, and a more generalized role in associative learning-memory processes. As such, hippocampal evolution in amniotes, especially mammals, can be seen as progressing toward a cytoarchitecture with well-defined subdivisions, regional connectivity, and a functional specialization supporting map-like representations of space. We then summarize a growing literature on amphibian spatial cognition and its underlying brain organization. Emphasizing the MP/HF, we highlight that further research into amphibian spatial cognition would provide novel insight into the role of the HF in spatial memory processes, and their supporting neural mechanisms. A more complete reconstruction of hippocampal evolution would benefit from additional research on non-mammalian vertebrates, with amphibians being of particular interest.

Stimulus-Response Compatibility During Fighting Task Simulation: Influences of the Opponent's Spatial Codes on the Accuracy and Response Time.

Manual Reaction Time measures have been widely used to study interactions between perceptual, cognitive, and motor functions. The Stimulus-Response Compatibility is a phenomenon characterized through faster Manual Reaction Times when stimuli and response locations coincide (correspondent condition) than when they are on different sides (noncorrespondent condition). The present study adapted a protocol to study if the Stimulus-Response Compatibility effect can be detected during a virtual combat simulation. Twenty-seven participants were instructed to defend themselves by clicking a key in order to block the presented punch. Videos of two fighters were used, granting two types of basic strokes: the back fist, a punch performed with the dorsal part of the fighter's hand, starting at the opposite side to which it is directed; and the hook punch, performed with a clenched fist starting and finishing ipsilaterally. The Manual Reaction Times were different between the correspondent and noncorrespondent conditions, F(1, 26) = 9.925; p < .004; η2 = .276, with an Stimulus-Response Compatibility effect of 72 ms. Errors were also different, F(1, 26) = 23.199; p < .001; η2 = .472, between the correspondent (13%) and the noncorrespondent conditions (23%). The study concluded that spatial codes presented at the beginning of the punch movement perception substantially influenced the response execution.

The inhibition of mirror generalization of letters in school-aged children.

Gender differences in spatial abilities favor males in both childhood and adulthood. During early development, this discrepancy can be attributed, among other things, to the influence of an early testosterone surge in boys, societal stereotypes, and expectations about gender. In the present work, we created a spatial task (including letter rotation and letter mirroring) which used letters as stimuli and evaluated the performance of school-aged children (6-10 years old). During this age period, children are being taught literacy skills which rely on the reorganization of cortical networks and the breakdown of mirror generalization. We divided our sample (N = 142, 73 females) into two age groups: 1st-2nd (literacy acquisition; N = 70, 33 females) and 3rd-5th (literacy consolidation; N = 72, 40 females) graders. While boys performed significantly better in letter rotation in the older group, girls' performance remained substandard in both groups. This pattern is reversed for the mirror task, with older girls outperforming their younger counterparts and boys having similar performance in the two groups. Since the age period of our sample is not associated with large variations in the levels of reproductive steroids, we propose that the similarity of performance between younger and older girls in mental rotation of letters could be associated with society's traditional attitudes and expectations on the relationship between visual-spatial skills and gender. As for the mirror task, while only girls had a significant difference between the two age groups, boys did show an improvement, as expected for the inhibition of mirror generalization for letters during reading acquisition.

Functional Dizziness as a Spatial Cognitive Dysfunction.

(1) Background: Persistent postural-perceptual dizziness (PPPD) is a common chronic dizziness disorder with an unclear pathophysiology. It is hypothesized that PPPD may involve disrupted spatial cognition processes as a core feature. (2) Methods: A cohort of 19 PPPD patients underwent psycho-cognitive testing, including assessments for anxiety, depression, memory, attention, planning, and executive functions, with an emphasis on spatial navigation via a virtual Morris water maze. These patients were compared with 12 healthy controls and 20 individuals with other vestibular disorders but without PPPD. Vestibular function was evaluated using video head impulse testing and vestibular evoked myogenic potentials, while brain magnetic resonance imaging was used to exclude confounding pathology. (3) Results: PPPD patients demonstrated unique impairments in allocentric spatial navigation (as evidenced by the virtual Morris water maze) and in other high-demand visuospatial cognitive tasks that involve executive functions and planning, such as the Towers of London and Trail Making B tests. A factor analysis highlighted spatial navigation and advanced visuospatial functions as being central to PPPD, with a strong correlation to symptom severity. (4) Conclusions: PPPD may broadly impair higher cognitive functions, especially in spatial cognition. We discuss a disruption in the creation of enriched cognitive spatial maps as a possible pathophysiology for PPPD.

Applying functional near-infrared spectroscopy and eye-tracking in a naturalistic educational environment to investigate physiological aspects that underlie the cognitive effort of children during mental rotation tests.

Spatial cognition is related to academic achievement in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) domains. Neuroimaging studies suggest that brain regions' activation might be related to the general cognitive effort while solving mental rotation tasks (MRT). In this study, we evaluate the mental effort of children performing MRT tasks by measuring brain activation and pupil dilation. We use functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) concurrently to collect brain hemodynamic responses from children's prefrontal cortex (PFC) and an Eye-tracking system to measure pupil dilation during MRT. Thirty-two healthy students aged 9-11 participated in this experiment. Behavioral measurements such as task performance on geometry problem-solving tests and MRT scores were also collected. The results were significant positive correlations between the children's MRT and geometry problem-solving test scores. There are also significant positive correlations between dorsolateral PFC (dlPFC) hemodynamic signals and visuospatial task performances (MRT and geometry problem-solving scores). Moreover, we found significant activation in the amplitude of deoxy-Hb variation on the dlPFC and that pupil diameter increased during the MRT, suggesting that both physiological responses are related to mental effort processes during the visuospatial task. Our findings indicate that children with more mental effort under the task performed better. The multimodal approach to monitoring students' mental effort can be of great interest in providing objective feedback on cognitive resource conditions and advancing our comprehension of the neural mechanisms that underlie cognitive effort. Hence, the ability to detect two distinct mental states of rest or activation of children during the MRT could eventually lead to an application for investigating the visuospatial skills of young students using naturalistic educational paradigms.

Cognitive maps in the wild: revealing the use of metric information in black howler monkey route navigation.

When navigating, wild animals rely on internal representations of the external world - called 'cognitive maps' - to take movement decisions. Generally, flexible navigation is hypothesized to be supported by sophisticated spatial skills (i.e. Euclidean cognitive maps); however, constrained movements along habitual routes are the most commonly reported navigation strategy. Even though incorporating metric information (i.e. distances and angles between locations) in route-based cognitive maps would likely enhance an animal's navigation efficiency, there has been no evidence of this strategy reported for non-human animals to date. Here, we examined the properties of the cognitive map used by a wild population of primates by testing a series of cognitive hypotheses against spatially explicit movement simulations. We collected 3104 h of ranging and behavioural data on five groups of black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) at Palenque National Park, Mexico, from September 2016 through August 2017. We simulated correlated random walks mimicking the ranging behaviour of the study subjects and tested for differences between observed and simulated movement patterns. Our results indicated that black howler monkeys engaged in constrained movement patterns characterized by a high path recursion tendency, which limited their capacity to travel in straight lines and approach feeding trees from multiple directions. In addition, we found that the structure of observed route networks was more complex and efficient than simulated route networks, suggesting that black howler monkeys incorporate metric information into their cognitive map. Our findings not only expand the use of metric information during route navigation to non-human animals, but also highlight the importance of considering efficient route-based navigation as a cognitively demanding mechanism.

Navigating in a challenging semiarid environment: the use of a route-based mental map by a small-bodied neotropical primate.

To increase efficiency in the search for resources, many animals rely on their spatial abilities. Specifically, primates have been reported to use mostly topological and rarely Euclidean maps when navigating in large-scale space. Here, we aimed to investigate if the navigation of wild common marmosets inhabiting a semiarid environment is consistent with a topological representation and how environmental factors affect navigation. We collected 497 h of direct behavioral and GPS information on a group of marmosets using a 2-min instantaneous focal animal sampling technique. We found that our study group reused not only long-route segments (mean of 1007 m) but entire daily routes, a pattern that is not commonly seen in primates. The most frequently reused route segments were the ones closer to feeding sites, distant to resting sites, and in areas sparse in tree vegetation. We also identified a total of 56 clustered direction change points indicating that the group modified their direction of travel. These changes in direction were influenced by their close proximity to resting and feeding sites. Despite our small sample size, the obtained results are important and consistent with the contention that common marmosets navigate using a topological map that seems to benefit these animals in response to the exploitation of clustered exudate trees. Based on our findings, we hypothesize that the Caatinga landscape imposes physical restrictions in our group's navigation such as gaps in vegetation, small trees and xerophytic plants. This study, based on preliminary evidence, raises the question of whether navigation patterns are an intrinsic characteristic of a species or are ecologically dependent and change according to the environment.

Gramática Espacial Urbana: la orientación espacial guiada por reglas verbales / Spatial and Urban Grammar: spatial orientation focuses on verbal rules

Resumen Objetivo: Analizar el papel que juegan las reglas en forma de instrucciones verbales y conducta no vocal sobre la manera como las personas se orientan en el espacio urbano. Método: Investigación descriptiva de tipo exploratoria. Se seleccionaron de manera aleatoria 75 personas, hombres y mujeres, mayores de edad y de diversas condiciones sociales, a quienes se les indagó mediante entrevistas informales en distintos puntos del espacio público de Bogotá por la manera de llegar a un destino específico. La información fue recogida por asistentes de investigación quienes se hacían pasar por transeúntes en busca de un lugar mientras grababan la conversación con el entrevistado. Las entrevistas fueron analizadas mediante el programa Atlas.ti. Resultados: Permiten agrupar las respuestas de los transeúntes a los lugares de destino en cinco categorías de reglas o instrucciones que dan las personas: instrucciones de secuencia geográfica, de secuencia de lugares, instrucciones para reconocimiento del lugar, instrucciones temporo-espaciales y no vocales. Conclusiones: Las personas estructuran su conocimiento del espacio urbano a partir de un sistema de categorías verbales que tienen que ver con el seguimiento de reglas, las cuales se reflejan en instrucciones y comunicación no vocal o gestual a manera de expresiones corporales. Se discuten las implicaciones del estudio en la identificación de reglas que configuran una gramática espacial en contraposición a los modelos cognoscitivos y las aproximaciones de las neurociencias, así como los alcances para la planeación urbana y la enseñanza de la ubicación especial.

Abstract Objective: This research study aims to examine the role of verbal instructions and non-vocal behavior, in order to explore the way people are oriented in urban space. Method: A descriptive and exploratory method was conducted. 75 adult people of different social strata, men and women, randomed selected were informaly interviewed about how to reach to a specific place, in different public places of Bogota. Research assistants who were in charge of data collecting, act as pedestrian recorded the conversation of the interviewee. Interviews were analyzed using Atlas.ti software. Results: Showed five categories of rules or instructions given by people whom were interviewed in relation with destinations, including the interpretation that could be made on non-vocal expressions. Conclusions: People structure their knowledge of urban space based on a system of verbal categories that have to do with the following of rules which are reflected in instructions and non-vocal or gestural communication in the form of corporal expressions. The implications of the study are discussed in the identification of rules that configure a spatial grammar, as opposed to cognitive models and neuroscience approaches, as well as the scope for urban planning and the teaching of special location.

Laboratory of the Neuropsychology and Cognitive Neurosciences Research Center of Universidad Católica del Maule, Chile.

The Laboratory of the Neuropsychology and Cognitive Neurosciences Research Center (CINPSI Neurocog), located in the "Technological Park" building of the Catholic University of Maule (Universidad Católica del Maule, UCM) campus in Talca, Chile, has been established as "Psychology Lab" recently in July, 2016. Our lines of work include basic and applied research. Among the basic research, we study executive functions, decision-making, and spatial cognition. In the applied field, we have studied neuropsychological and neurobehavioral effects of pesticides exposure, among other interests. One of our aims is to develop collaboration both national and internationally. It is important to mention that to date there are only few psychology laboratories and research centers in Chile involved with the fields of neuropsychology and neurosciences. Thus, this scientific effort could be a groundbreaking initiative to develop specific knowledge in this area locally and interculturally through its international collaborations.

Alteraciones cognitivas espaciales y no espaciales relacionadas al sistema vestibular: una entidad subdiagnosticada / Space and non-space-related cognitive disturbances related to the vestibular system: an underdiagnosed entity

El sistema vestibular permite estabilizar las imágenes visuales en la retina durante el desplazamiento y mantener el balance postural. Hay proyecciones desde los núcleos vestibulares hasta la corteza cerebral, específicamente a nivel del hipocampo y la región témporo-parietal, relacionadas a la llamada cognición espacial y a algunos procesos cognitivos no espaciales como atención y cálculo numérico. La presente es una revisión bibliográfica de areas de estudio e investigación en relación a estos procesos. En los sistemas de búsqueda Pub Med y Google Académico, se encontraron 44 artículos, de los cuales dos fueron capítulos de libros de texto. Se elaboran conclusiones pertinentes

The vestibular system allows the stabilization of visual images in the retina during displacement, thus contributing to the maintenance of postural balance. There are projections from the vestibular nuclei to the cerebral cortex, specifically hippocampus and the temporo-parietal region, related to the so-called spatial cognition and to some non- spatial cognitive processes such as attention and numerical calculation. A literature review on study and research areas related to these processes is presented. Academic Google and PubMed search engines were utilized with a total of 44 articles found, two of which were textbook chapters. Pertinent conclusions are elaborated.

Spatial perseveration error by alpacas (Vicugna pacos) in an A-not-B detour task.

Spatial perseveration has been documented for domestic animals such as mules, donkeys, horses and dogs. However, evidence for this spatial cognition behavior among other domestic species is scarce. Alpacas have been domesticated for at least 7000 years yet their cognitive ability has not been officially reported. The present article used an A-not-B detour task to study the spatial problem-solving abilities of alpacas (Vicugna pacos) and to identify the perseveration errors, which refers to a tendency to maintain a learned route, despite having another available path. The study tested 51 alpacas, which had to pass through a gap at one end of a barrier in order to reach a reward. After one, two, three or four repeats (A trials), the gap was moved to the opposite end of the barrier (B trials). In contrast to what has been found in other domestic animals tested with the same task, the present study did not find clear evidence of spatial perseveration. Individuals' performance in the subsequent B trials, following the change of gap location, suggests no error persistence in alpacas. Results suggest that alpacas are more flexible than other domestic animals tested with this same task, which has important implications in planning proper training for experimental designs or productive purposes. These results could contribute toward enhancing alpacas' welfare and our understanding of their cognitive abilities.

Intersection as key locations for bearded capuchin monkeys (Sapajus libidinosus) traveling within a route network.

There is evidence that wild animals are able to recall key locations and associate them with navigational routes. Studies in primate navigation suggest most species navigate through the route network system, using intersections among routes as locations of decision-making. Recent approaches presume that points of directional change may be key locations where animals decide where to go next. Over four consecutive years, we observed how a wild group of bearded capuchin monkeys used a route network system and Change Point locations (CPs) in the Brazilian ecotone of Cerrado-Caatinga. We built 200 daily routes of one wild bearded capuchin group. We used ArcGIS, the Change Point Test, Spatial Analysis in Macroecology (SAM), and statistical models to test the hypothesis that wild bearded capuchins use CPs located along routes in a different fashion than they use the CPs located at intersections of routes. A logistic regression model was used to determine the landscape variables affecting capuchins' directional changes at intersections or along routes. CPs at intersections were important points of travel path changes, whereas CPs along routes represented a zig-zag movement along the routes following the landscape features. CPs at intersections were associated with steeper terrains and shorter distances from important resources, along with better visibility of the home range. Our results support the hypothesis that intersections among routes in the route network system are located at points where monkeys have the best visibility available to make decisions on where to visit next.

Poison frogs rely on experience to find the way home in the rainforest.

Among vertebrates, comparable spatial learning abilities have been found in birds, mammals, turtles and fishes, but virtually nothing is known about such abilities in amphibians. Overall, amphibians are the most sedentary vertebrates, but poison frogs (Dendrobatidae) routinely shuttle tadpoles from terrestrial territories to dispersed aquatic deposition sites. We hypothesize that dendrobatid frogs rely on learning for flexible navigation. We tested the role of experience with the local cues for poison frog way-finding by (i) experimentally displacing territorial males of Allobates femoralis over several hundred metres, (ii) using a harmonic direction finder with miniature transponders to track these small frogs, and (iii) using a natural river barrier to separate the translocated frogs from any familiar landmarks. We found that homeward orientation was disrupted by the translocation to the unfamiliar area but frogs translocated over similar distances in their local area showed significant homeward orientation and returned to their territories via a direct path. We suggest that poison frogs rely on spatial learning for way-finding in their local area.

Cognición espacial: posiciones egocéntrica y alocéntrica en un grupo con Síndrome de Asperger / Spatial cognition in an Asperger syndrome group: egocentric and allocentric stances

Se han propuesto tres aproximaciones que intentan explicar las peculiaridades del Síndrome de Asperger (SA): disfunción ejecutiva, pobre teoría de la mente o dificultades en la coherencia central. En 2005, Frith y Vignemont proponen una desconexión entre posiciones egocéntrica a alocéntrica, planteando una nueva línea de caracterización del SA. Objetivo: En el presente estudio se comparó el desempeño del tránsito entre posiciones egocéntrica y alocéntrica, en un grupo de cinco niños con SA. Método: El grupo estuvo conformado por 4 niños y 1 niña, con edad promedio de 10 años. Se realizó una valoración detallada a fin de confirmar el diagnóstico y se aplicaron subescalas de la Evaluación Neuropsicológica Infantil. Se reporta el análisis del desempeño en la subescala Habilidades Espaciales. Resultados: Se observa un desempeño dentro del rango promedio observando diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre subdominios que conforman la subescala (014<0.05 F friedman), así como en las respuestas correctas cuando utilizaron marcos de referencia alocéntricos y egocéntrico en tareas de comprensión (gl 2, 0.041<0.05 Q Cochran) y expresión (gl 2, 0.022<0.05 Q Cochran) derecha-izquierda. Conclusión: En el caso del SA, se observa predominio del uso de la posición egocéntrica. El desempeño alocéntrico de los participantes es más eficaz cuando establecen relaciones desde un objeto dinámico vs estático. Se destaca la importancia de realizar un diagnóstico meticuloso del SA, a fin de valorar si las peculiaridades observadas en cognición espacial han sido generalizadas erróneamente a otros Trastornos del Espectro Autista debido a un diagnóstico equivocado.

Asperger Syndrome (SA) has been explained by three approaches: executive dysfunction, impaired theory of mind and central coherence. In 2005, Frith and Vignemont suggest a new approach, based in disconnection between egocentric and allocentric stances. The present study aimed to compare performance´s group of five children with AS in egocentric-allocentric transit task. Four boys and a girl, whose average age was 10 years old, formed the group. A comprehensive assessment confirmed de AS diagnostic. Children were assessed with Evaluacion Neuropsicológica Infantil subtests, and we report the Spatial Abilities subtest analysis. Standard scores were obtained by the group in average values, but there were significant differences (014<0.05 F friedman) between subdomains assessed by Spatial Abilities subtest. We also found significant differences in egocentric-allocentric stances in spatial notion understanding task (gl 2,0.041<0.05 Q Cochran), and spatial notion expression task (gl 2, 0.022<0.05 Q Cochran). Conclusion: AS group prevail taking egocentric stance. Allocentric performance is commonly efficient if individuals take stance from dynamic than static object. We highlight the importance of an accurate and comprehensive assessment in AS diagnosis to avoid generalization of AS features to another Spectrum Autistic Disorders because of a mistaken AS diagnosis.

Moviéndose con la mente y el cuerpo: entendiendo la diferencia entre planear y realizar rutas en el espacio construido / Moving with the mind and the body: understanding the gap between planning and executing routes in the built environment

Este escrito estudió hasta qué punto las personas, al momento de ir de un punto A a uno B, realizan las rutas planeadas previamente, y si éstas son idénticas para ir que para volver. Se pidió a 42 participantes estudiar un plano del campus principal de la UTFSM, y trazar las rutas que eligirían para ir entre dos pares de puntos. Una vez terminada esta tarea, los participantes debieron recorrer en la realidad las rutas trazadas. Los resultados mostraron que las rutas trazadas en papel no necesariamente coincidieron con las rutas realizadas en terreno, y que, en la mayoría de los casos, las rutas A-B/B-A y X-Y/Y-X no fueron simétricas. Se concluye sugiriendo que los criterios de elección de ruta cambian porque el razonamiento espacial de las personas es inherentemente situado, esto es, moldeado por el entorno en que se lleva a cabo.

This paper is concerned with route behavior in people. Specifically, it aims to better understand whether people follow routes planned in advance, and whether these routes are identical irrespective of the direction of travel. A total of 42 participants (27 belonging to UTFSM and 15 from outside) were asked to trace routed between a pair of points in a map of the campus. After that, they were brought to these places and asked to physically navigate these routes. The main results showed that planned routes were not necessarily employed in real-world scenarios, and that people often changed routes depending on the direction of travel. These results suggest that route choice criteria are somehow dependant on contextual information.

Moviéndose con la mente y el cuerpo: entendiendo la diferencia entre planear y realizar rutas en el espacio construido / Moving with the mind and the body: understanding the gap between planning and executing routes in the built environment

Este escrito estudió hasta qué punto las personas, al momento de ir de un punto A a uno B, realizan las rutas planeadas previamente, y si éstas son idénticas para ir que para volver. Se pidió a 42 participantes estudiar un plano del campus principal de la UTFSM, y trazar las rutas que eligirían para ir entre dos pares de puntos. Una vez terminada esta tarea, los participantes debieron recorrer en la realidad las rutas trazadas. Los resultados mostraron que las rutas trazadas en papel no necesariamente coincidieron con las rutas realizadas en terreno, y que, en la mayoría de los casos, las rutas A-B/B-A y X-Y/Y-X no fueron simétricas. Se concluye sugiriendo que los criterios de elección de ruta cambian porque el razonamiento espacial de las personas es inherentemente situado, esto es, moldeado por el entorno en que se lleva a cabo.(AU)

This paper is concerned with route behavior in people. Specifically, it aims to better understand whether people follow routes planned in advance, and whether these routes are identical irrespective of the direction of travel. A total of 42 participants (27 belonging to UTFSM and 15 from outside) were asked to trace routed between a pair of points in a map of the campus. After that, they were brought to these places and asked to physically navigate these routes. The main results showed that planned routes were not necessarily employed in real-world scenarios, and that people often changed routes depending on the direction of travel. These results suggest that route choice criteria are somehow dependant on contextual information.(AU)

Historical evolution of spatial abilities.

Historical evolution and cross-cultural differences in spatial abilities are analyzed. Spatial abilities have been found to be significantly associated with the complexity of geographical conditions and survival demands. Although impaired spatial cognition is found in cases of, exclusively or predominantly, right hemisphere pathology, it is proposed that this asymmetry may depend on the degree of training in spatial abilities. It is further proposed that spatial cognition might have evolved in a parallel way with cultural evolution and environmental demands. Contemporary city humans might be using spatial abilities in some new, conceptual tasks that did not exist in prehistoric times: mathematics, reading, writing, mechanics, music, etc. Cross-cultural analysis of spatial abilities in different human groups, normalization of neuropsychological testing instruments, and clinical observations of spatial ability disturbances in people with different cultural backgrounds and various spatial requirements, are required to construct a neuropsychological theory of brain organization of spatial cognition.