A New Species of Aleiodes Wesmael (Braconidae, Rogadinae) with Potential for Biological Control of Spodoptera spp. (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae), and Notes on the Definition of the gastritor, circumscriptus, and Related Species-Groups.

A new species of Aleiodes Wesmael in the gastritor Thunberg species-group is described and illustrated. The new species, Aleiodes ceres Shimbori sp.n., occurs in Southern Brazil and Argentina. It is a potential biological control agent of caterpillars in the genus Spodoptera Guenée, namely S. cosmioides (Walker), S. eridania (Stoll), and S. frugiperda (J.E. Smith), which are serious pests on major crops including maize and soybean. The position of the new species within Aleiodes is discussed in relation to existing proposals of subdivisions of the genus into species-groups. In agreement with recent publications, the gastritor species-group is treated as separate from the circumscriptus Nees/bicolor Spinola group, as evidence suggests the latter is absent in the New World. We also propose the provisional shakirae Shimbori & Shaw species-group, to accommodate a clade of Neotropical species with geometrid hosts and morphological features similar to the gastritor and circumscriptus groups. A key to Neotropical species in the gastritor group and similar species is provided, except for species recently named without a morphological description.

Characterization of a novel alphabaculovirus isolated from the Southern armyworm, Spodoptera eridania (Cramer, 1782) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and the evolution of odv-e66, a bacterium-acquired baculoviral chondroitinase gene.

The Southern armyworm Spodoptera eridania (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is native to the American tropics and a polyphagous pest of several crops. Here we characterized a novel alphabaculovirus isolated from S. eridania, isolate Spodoptera eridania nucleopolyhedrivurus CNPSo-165 (SperNPV-CNPSo-165). SperNPV-CNPSo-165 occlusion bodies were found to be polyhedral and to contain virions with multiple nucleocapsids. The virus was lethal to S. eridania and S. albula but not to S. frugiperda. The SperNPV-CNPSo-165 genome was 137.373 bp in size with a G + C content of 42.8%. We annotated 151 ORFs with 16 ORFs unique among baculoviruses. Phylogenetic inference indicated that this virus was closely related to the most recent common ancestor of other Spodoptera-isolated viruses.

Characterization of cell lines derived from the southern armyworm, Spodoptera eridania.

Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm) is a polyphagous pest of many plants, including field crops, vegetables, fruits, and ornamentals. Larvae are leaf feeders, defoliating many crops in the tropics and subtropics of the western hemisphere. In this study, cell lines from S. eridania were established to support research focused on the development of advanced pest management technologies. We generated seven cell lines from larval tissues: three from nervous tissues, two from testes, and two from fat bodies. These cell lines have been passaged 18-57 times, indicating they are established lines. They are maintained in EX-CELL 420 or a combination of L15 + EX-CELL 420 media. The identities of the cell lines were confirmed by DAF-PCR and their doubling times ranged from 42 to 110 h. Microscopy indicated the presence of one or more morphologically distinct cell types in each cell line. We identified a catalase gene in all seven cell lines. H2O2 treatment suppressed the expression of catalase and led to a reduction in catalase activity. This is the first report of cell lines established from S. eridania, and these cell lines are now available to researchers worldwide on request.

Specificity of induced defenses, growth, and reproduction in lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus) in response to multispecies herbivory.

UNLABELLED: • PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Following herbivore attack, plants can either reduce damage by inducing defenses or mitigate herbivory effects through compensatory growth and reproduction. It is increasingly recognized that such induced defenses in plants are herbivore-specific, but less is known about the specificity of compensatory responses. Damage by multiple herbivores may also lead to synergistic effects on induction and plant fitness that differ from those caused by a single herbivore species. Although largely unstudied, the order of arrival and damage by different herbivore species might also play an important role in the impacts of herbivory on plants.• METHODS: We investigated the specificity of defense induction (phenolics) and effects on growth (number of stems and leaves) and reproduction (number of seeds, seed mass, and germination rate) from feeding by two generalist leaf-chewing herbivores (Spodoptera eridania and Diabrotica balteata) on Phaseolus lunatus plants and evaluated whether simultaneous attack by both herbivores and their order of arrival influenced such dynamics.• KEY RESULTS: Herbivory increased levels of leaf phenolics, but such effects were not herbivore-specific. In contrast, herbivory enhanced seed germination in an herbivore-specific manner. For all variables measured, the combined effects of both herbivore species did not differ from their individual effects. Finally, the order of herbivore arrival did not influence defense induction, plant growth, or seed number but did influence seed mass and germination.• CONCLUSIONS: Overall, this study highlights novel aspects of the specificity of plant responses induced by damage from multiple species of herbivores and uniquely associates such effects with plant lifetime fitness.

Tamanho de amostra para a estimação da média de lagartas na cultura de soja / Sample size for estimate the average of caterpillars in soybean

Os objetivos deste trabalho foram determinar o tamanho de amostra (número de pontos amostrais) para a estimação da média de densidade populacional de lagartas e verificar a variabilidade do tamanho de amostra entre os tamanhos e as espécies de lagartas e os estádios fenológicos. Em 6,16 ha de soja, foi demarcado um gride de 154 pontos amostrais, espaçados de 20 × 20 m. Foram coletados dados de densidade populacional de lagartas pequenas e grandes das espécies Anticarsia gemmatalis, Pseudoplusia includens e Spodoptera eridania, por meio de pano-de-batida vertical, em 14 estádios fenológicos. Foram calculadas medidas de tendência central, de variabilidade e de distribuição espacial e calculados os tamanhos de amostra. Há variabilidade do tamanho de amostra para a estimação da média de densidade populacional de lagartas entre os tamanhos e as espécies de lagartas e entre os estádios fenológicos da soja. Menores tamanhos de amostra são necessários para as lagartas pequenas, a espécie A. gemmatalis e para os estádios fenológicos intermediários (R1, R2, R3, R4 e R5.1) em relação, às lagartas grandes, às espécies P. includens e S. eridania e os estádios fenológicos iniciais (V7, V9 e V11) e finais (R5.3, R5.5 e R6), respectivamente. Para o total de lagartas, 18 pontos amostrais são suficientes para estimar a média de densidade populacional de lagartas, para um erro de estimação igual a 30% da média estimada, com grau de confiança de 95%, nos estádios fenológicos intermediários (R1, R2, R3, R4 e R5.1).

The present work aimed to determine the sample size (number of sampling points) needed to estimate the average population density of caterpillars and evaluate the sample size variability due to caterpillars sizes, species and crop growth stages. In 6.16 ha of soybean, a grid was marked with 154 sampling points spaced 20 × 20 m. Population density data were collected from small and large larvae of the species Anticarsia gemmatalis, Pseudoplusia includens and Spodoptera eridania, through vertical beat sheet on 14 phenological stages. Were calculated measures of central tendency, variability and spatial distribution and calculated the sample sizes. There is variability in sample size to estimate the average population density of caterpillars sizes, species and soybean growth stages. Smaller sample sizes are needed for small larvae, the specie A. Gemmatalis for intermediate growth stages (R1, R2, R3, R4 and R5.1) about large larvae, the species P. includens and S. eridania the early growth stages (V7, V9 and V11) and finals (R5.3, R5.5 and R6), respectively. For total caterpillars, 18 sampling points are enough to estimate the average population density, for an estimation error equal to 30% of the estimated average, with a 95% confidence level, during intermediate growth stages (R1, R2, R3, R4 and R5.1).

Leaf quality and insect herbivory in model tropical plant communities after long-term exposure to elevated atmospheric CO2.

Results from laboratory feeding experiments have shown that elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide can affect interactions between plants and insect herbivores, primarily through changes in leaf nutritional quality occurring at elevated CO2. Very few data are available on insect herbivory in plant communities where insects can choose among species and positions in the canopy in which to feed. Our objectives were to determine the extent to which CO2-induced changes in plant communities and leaf nutritional quality may affect herbivory at the level of the entire canopy. We introduced equivalent populations of fourth instar Spodoptera eridania, a lepidopteran generalist, to complex model ecosystems containing seven species of moist tropical plants maintained under low mineral nutrient supply. Larvae were allowed to feed freely for 14 days, by which time they had reached the seventh instar. Prior to larval introductions, plant communities had been continuously exposed to either 340 µl CO2 l-1 or to 610 µl CO2 l-1 for 1.5 years. No major shifts in leaf nutritional quality [concentrations of N, total non-structural carbohydrates (TNC), sugar, and starch; ratios of: C/N, TNC/N, sugar/N, starch/N; leaf toughness] were observed between CO2 treatments for any of the species. Furthermore, no correlations were observed between these measures of leaf quality and leaf biomass consumption. Total leaf area and biomass of all plant communities were similar when caterpillars were introduced. However, leaf biomass of some species was slightly greater-and for other species slightly less (e.g. Cecropia peltata)-in communities exposed to elevated CO2. Larvae showed the strongest preference for C. peltata leaves, the plant species that was least abundant in all communites, and fed relatively little on plants species which were more abundant. Thus, our results indicate that leaf tissue quality, as described by these parameters, is not necessarily affected by elevated CO2 under relatively low nutrient conditions. Hence, the potential importance of CO2-induced shifts in leaf nutritional quality, as determinants of herbivory, may be overestimated for many plant communities growing on nutrient-poor sites if estimates are based on traditional laboratory feeding studies. Finally, slight shifts in the abundance of leaf tissue of various species occurring under elevated CO2 will probably not significantly affect herbivory by generalist insects. However, generalist insect herbivores appear to become more dependent on less-preferred plant species in cases where elevated CO2 results in reduced availability of leaves of a favoured plant species, and this greater dependency may eventually affect insect populations adversely.

The effect of dietary nicotine on the allocation of assimilated food to energy metabolism and growth in fourth-instar larvae of the southern armyworm, Spodoptera eridania (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae).

Dietary nicotine (0.5%), which is a substrate of the PSMO (polysubstrate monooxygenase) detoxification system in the southern armyworm Spodoptera eridania, has significant negative effects on the weight of food ingested, weight gained, relative growth rate (RGR), and efficiency of conversion of digested food (ECD) by fourthinstar S. eridania larvae on a nutrient-rich artificial diet. It has a significant positive effect on the weight of food respired by the larvae. Thus, the detoxification of nicotine by the PSMO system exacts a fitness cost and imposes a metabolic cost on S. eridania larvae. In contrast, dietary α-(+)-pinene, an inducer of the PSMO system, neither exacts a fitness cost nor imposes a metabolic cost on the larvae. We believe this to be the first study to demonstrate unequivocally that the negative effect of a dietary toxin on net growth efficiency (ECD) in an insect herbivore is due to an increase in the allocation of assimilated food to energy metabolism and not to a decrease in the amount of food assimilated. This study, therefore, supports the hypothesis that detoxification can impose a significant metabolic load on an insect herbivore. Implications of a corroboration of the metabolic load hypothesis are discussed.

The effect of carbon supply on allocation to allelochemicals and caterpillar consumption of peppermint.

The carbon supply of peppermint plants was manipulated by growing clonal propagules under three carbon dioxide regimes (350, 500 and 650 µl l-1). Feeding by fourth instar caterpillars of Spodoptera eridania increased with elevated CO2 hostplant regime, as well as with low leaf nitrogen content and by a high proportion of leaf volatile terpenoids. Leaf weight increased significantly with the increased carbon supply, but the amount of nitrogen per leaf did not change. The amount of volatile leaf mono-and sesquiterpenes increased proportionately with total leaf dry weight and hence was not influenced by CO2 supply. These results are consistent with ecological hypotheses which assume that allocation to defense is closely regulated and not sensitive to carbon supply per se.

Effects of plant phenols of performance of southern armyworm larvae.

We evaluated the effects of two classes of phenols on performance of penultimate instar southern armyworms, Spodoptera eridania. One class consisted of phenols containing a catechol (ortho-dihydroxybenzene) moiety and included chlorogenic acid, quercetin, rutin, and rhamnetin. A second group consisted of the phenolic glycoside salicin and its derivatives salicortin and tremulacin. The compounds were painted onto lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus) leaves and fed to larvae for the duration of the fifth instar. Chlorogenic acid and rhamnetin had no deleterious effects; rutin and quercetin caused some mortality and rutin reduced growth rates by decreasing consumption and digestion efficiency. Results showed that ortho-dihydroxybenzene groups may be necessary, but are not sufficient for biological activity. Salicin did not affect larvae; salicortin and tremulacin reduced growth rates primarily by decreasing consumption. These two compounds also caused degenerative lesions in midgut tissues. The presence of a benzoyl ester group in tremulacin accentuates its toxicity, relative to that of salicortin.