Re-thinking Stepfathers' Contributions: Fathers, Stepfathers, and Child Wellbeing.

Using data from a contemporary cohort of children, we revisit the question of whether children benefit from being close to and engaging in activities with a stepfather. We deploy the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a birth cohort study of nearly 5000 children born in US cities in 1998-2000, with a large oversample of nonmarital births. We explore the relationships between stepfathers' closeness and active engagement and youth's internalizing and externalizing behaviors and school connectedness at ages 9 and 15 for between 550 and 740 children (depending on the wave) with stepfathers. We find that the emotional tenor of the relationship and level of active engagement between youth and their stepfathers are associated with reduced internalizing behaviors and higher school connectedness. Our findings suggest that stepfathers' roles seem to have evolved in ways that are more beneficial to their adolescent stepchildren than was previously the case.

Physical Abuse of Children by Stepfathers in Colombia.

Evolutionary psychologists claim that stepparents perpetrate substantially more child physical abuse than genetic parents, and that they do so because they are less invested in genetically unrelated children. The objective of this study was to examine these claims by investigating whether, and why, fathers in a Colombian sample physically abused their stepchildren more than their genetic children. Fathers (N = 86) and their partners living in Bogotá were interviewed by Klevens et al. Half of the fathers had been reported to authorities for child physical abuse, the other half were matched controls. Secondary analysis was conducted of Klevens et al.'s data. Hypotheses from the evolutionary and ecological accounts of child maltreatment were tested using logistic and ordinal regression. Both the prevalence and the frequency of physical abuse by stepfathers were considerably greater than those of genetic fathers. Several indicators of adversity-including parental youth and experience of abuse, fathers' chronic stress, and mothers' poor communication with the child-were associated with both abuse and stepparenthood. Models including these variables indicated that they accounted for much of the stepfathers' higher rates of abuse. Consistent with the ecological account, much of the stepfathers' greater prevalence and frequency of abuse in this sample is likely to have resulted from confounding variables, rather than from the step relationship per se.

Father-Adolescent Conflict and Adolescent Symptoms: The Moderating Roles of Father Residential Status and Type.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to examine if the longitudinal associations between father-adolescent conflict and both externalizing and internalizing symptoms in youth were moderated by fathers' residential status (i.e., whether or not he lived in the home) and type of residential father (i.e., biological or step). METHODS: Adolescents (N = 146) completed a measure about conflict with their father or stepfather in 8th and 9th grade. At the same time points, mothers completed measures about the youths' externalizing and internalizing symptoms. RESULTS: The association between 8th grade conflict and 9th grade externalizing symptoms was moderated by fathers' residential status. Conflict with fathers in 8th grade was positively associated with 9th grade externalizing symptoms when youths resided with their father (biological and stepfathers were included); in contrast, higher levels of father-adolescent conflict were associated with lower levels of subsequent externalizing symptoms when fathers did not live with the youth. Externalizing symptoms in 8th grade did not significantly predict father-adolescent conflict in grade 9. Regarding internalizing symptoms, the association between father-adolescent conflict in 8th grade and internalizing symptoms in 9th grade was moderated by father's residential status; conflict predicted higher levels of internalizing symptoms when the biological father lived elsewhere. Higher levels of 8th grade internalizing symptoms also significantly predicted greater conflict between adolescents and their fathers in 9th grade for residential fathers only. CONCLUSIONS: The associations among adolescent emotional and behavioral outcomes and paternal-child relationship qualities vary with symptom type and family structures and, thus, warrant further comprehensive study.

Father-Daughter Bonds: A Comparison of Adolescent Daughters' Relationships With Resident Biological Fathers and Stepfathers.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether the interpersonal dynamics of closeness are different in stepfather-stepdaughter versus father-daughter relationships during adolescence. BACKGROUND: Establishing a general process model of the relational factors contributing to greater closeness between fathers and daughters is a preliminary step toward examining variations in such processes. METHOD: The data were from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, a nationally representative sample of adolescents. Respondents were female adolescents who were living with either a biological father (n = 1,881) or stepfather (n = 273) and reported on the availability and involvement of their (step)fathers, as well as the communication and closeness in their relationship with him. RESULTS: Involvement and communication were predictors of closeness in both types of relationships, however, communication was a stronger predictor of closeness between stepfathers and stepdaughters. For adolescent girls living with a stepfather, greater involvement with their stepfathers was associated with greater closeness to their nonresident biological fathers. The length of the relationship between stepfathers and stepdaughters was not associated with levels of closeness. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, these findings suggest that stepfather-stepdaughter relationships reflect similar interpersonal dynamics as father-daughter relationships but that establishing and maintaining these relationships through meaningful communication may be particularly important for stepfathers and stepdaughters. IMPLICATIONS: Practitioners working to help stepfamilies build stronger relationships may want to stress that investing in shared activities and maintaining meaningful communication can be particularly important for establishing and maintaining positive relationships between stepfathers and stepdaughters.

The clinical features of alcohol use disorders in biological and step-fathers that predict risk for alcohol use disorders in offspring.

Given that Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD) is clinically heterogeneous, can we, in a large epidemiological sample using public registries, identify clinical features of AUD cases in biological and step-fathers that index, respectively, genetic and familial-environmental risk for AUD in their offspring? From all father-offspring pairs where the father had AUD and the offspring was born 1960-1990, we identified not-lived-with (NLW) biological fathers (n = 38,376) and step-father pairs (n = 9,711). The relationship between clinical and historical features of the father's AUD and risk for AUD in offspring was assessed by linear hazard regression. Age at first registration for AUD and recurrence of AUD registration were significantly stronger predictors of risk for AUD in the offspring of NLW fathers than in step-fathers. By contrast, number of AUD registrations in NLW fathers and step-fathers were equally predictive of risk for AUD in offspring. However, while the number of step-father AUD registrations that occurred when he was living them with significantly predicted risk for AUD in his step-children, the number of registrations that occurred when not residing with his step-children was unassociated with their AUD risk. In an epidemiological sample, we could meaningfully differentiate between features of AUD in fathers that indexed genetic risk which was transmitted to biological offspring (early age at onset and recurrence) versus indexed environmental risk (registrations while rearing) which increased risk in step-children.

AFRICAN AMERICAN STEPFATHER-STEPCHILD RELATIONSHIPS, MARITAL QUALITY, AND MENTAL HEALTH.

This study examined associations between stepfather-stepchild relationship quality, stepfathers' depressive symptoms, and two aspects of marriage: marital quality and positive marital interactions. Marital quality was assessed in terms of commitment, trust, passionate and friendship-based love, and happiness. Marital interactions were assessed in terms of intimacy, shared activities, and verbal communication. Using data collected from 149 recently married African American stepfathers, structural equation modeling revealed that when stepfathers reported more positive relationships with their stepchildren, they also reported more positive marital quality and a higher frequency of positive marital interactions (relationship solidifying activities), and that, in turn, was associated with stepfathers experiencing fewer depressive symptoms.

He Said What? Guided Cognitive Reframing About the Co-resident Father/Stepfather-adolescent Relationship.

We studied young adolescents' seeking out support to understand conflict with their co-resident fathers/stepfathers and the cognitive and affective implications of such support-seeking, phenomena we call guided cognitive reframing. Our sample included 392 adolescents (Mage = 12.5, 52.3% female) who were either of Mexican or European ancestry and lived with their biological mothers and either a stepfather or a biological father. More frequent reframing was associated with more adaptive cognitive explanations for father/stepfather behavior. Cognitions explained the link between seeking out and feelings about the father/stepfather and self. Feelings about the self were more strongly linked to depressive symptoms than cognitions. We discuss the implications for future research on social support, coping, guided cognitive reframing, and father-child relationships.

O lugar do padrasto em famílias recompostas / The stepfather’s role in recomposed families

As famílias recompostas têm características próprias, e o estudo dessa nova configuração familiar revela singularidades relativas às posições ocupadas pelos seus membros. Essas posições são muito distintas das ocupadas no modelo da família nuclear. Nem sempre o adulto que assume funções parentais diante de uma criança é o pai legal ou o genitor. O foco deste trabalho é a figura do padrasto. Através de uma revisão da literatura sobre o papel do padrasto na dinâmica de famílias formadas após uma dissolução conjugal, pretende-se refletir sobre sua posição na cena familiar, dando destaque aos principais fatores relacionados à sua inclusão na família.

Recomposed families have their own characteristics and the study of this new family configuration reveals singularities given the position occupied by its members. These positions are very different from the ones observed in the nuclear family model. When an adult man assumes parental roles in front of a child, not always he is his/her legal father or his/her genitor. The focal point of this paper is the stepfather’s figure. By reviewing the literature regarding the stepfather’s role in the dynamics of families formed after a conjugal dissolution, we intend to reflect on his position within the family setting, highlighting the most significant factors related to his inclusion within the family.

Las familias recompuestas tienen características propias y el estudio de esa nueva configuración familiar revela singularidades relativas a las posiciones ocupadas por sus miembros. Esas posiciones son muy distintas de las observadas en el modelo de família nuclear. No siempre que un adulto asume funciones parentales delante de un niño, él es su padre legal o su genitor. El foco de este trabajo es la figura del padrastro. A partir de uma revisión de la literatura sobre el papel del padrastro en la dinámica de las familias formadas tras una disolución conyugal, se pretende reflexionar sobre su posición en la escena familiar, destacando los principales factores relacionados a su inclusión en la familia.

O lugar do padrasto em famílias recompostas / The stepfather’s role in recomposed families / El lugar del padrastro en familias recompuestas

As famílias recompostas têm características próprias, e o estudo dessa nova configuração familiar revela singularidades relativas às posições ocupadas pelos seus membros. Essas posições são muito distintas das ocupadas no modelo da família nuclear. Nem sempre o adulto que assume funções parentais diante de uma criança é o pai legal ou o genitor. O foco deste trabalho é a figura do padrasto. Através de uma revisão da literatura sobre o papel do padrasto na dinâmica de famílias formadas após uma dissolução conjugal, pretende-se refletir sobre sua posição na cena familiar, dando destaque aos principais fatores relacionados à sua inclusão na família.(AU)

Recomposed families have their own characteristics and the study of this new family configuration reveals singularities given the position occupied by its members. These positions are very different from the ones observed in the nuclear family model. When an adult man assumes parental roles in front of a child, not always he is his/her legal father or his/her genitor. The focal point of this paper is the stepfather’s figure. By reviewing the literature regarding the stepfather’s role in the dynamics of families formed after a conjugal dissolution, we intend to reflect on his position within the family setting, highlighting the most significant factors related to his inclusion within the family.(AU)

Las familias recompuestas tienen características propias y el estudio de esa nueva configuración familiar revela singularidades relativas a las posiciones ocupadas por sus miembros. Esas posiciones son muy distintas de las observadas en el modelo de família nuclear. No siempre que un adulto asume funciones parentales delante de un niño, él es su padre legal o su genitor. El foco de este trabajo es la figura del padrastro. A partir de uma revisión de la literatura sobre el papel del padrastro en la dinámica de las familias formadas tras una disolución conyugal, se pretende reflexionar sobre su posición en la escena familiar, destacando los principales factores relacionados a su inclusión en la familia.(AU)

Cohabitating Partners and Domestic Labor in Low-Income Black Families.

This article examines the division of domestic labor in low-income cohabiting Black stepfamilies. We analyze survey data collected from 136 such families in order to understand how stepparent gender and relationship length impact the distribution of domestic labor. We hypothesize that women do more domestic work than men across all three family types, and that stepfathers are more involved in domestic labor in established relationships compared to new relationships. Findings indicate that cohabiting stepfathers in both new and established cohabiting Black stepfamilies make substantial contributions to domestic labor. These families demonstrate a division of labor consistent with traditional gender roles, though both partners agree on how much work each does. Parents, regardless of gender, are more involved in domestic labor than stepparents.

Direct investment by stepfathers can mitigate effects on educational outcomes but does not improve behavioural difficulties.

In contemporary developed populations, stepfather presence has been associated with detrimental effects on child development. However, the proximate mechanisms behind such effects are yet to be fully explored. From a behavioural ecological perspective, the negative effects associated with stepfathers may be due to the reduced quantity and quality of investments children receive within stepfather households. Here, we build on previous studies by investigating whether the effects of stepfather presence on child outcomes are driven by differences in maternal and partner (i.e., father or stepfather) direct investments. We use data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children to explore stepfather effects on children's educational achievement and behavioural difficulties at age 7. Our results indicate that, for educational achievement, stepfather effects are due to the lower levels of direct investments children receive. For behavioural difficulty, stepfather effects are due to multiple factors whereby stepfather presence is associated with greater difficulties independent of investment levels, and direct investments from stepfathers are ineffective. Our results suggest that the negative effects of stepfathers on child outcomes can be explained, in part, by the reduced quantity and the ineffectiveness of direct investments children receive from stepfathers. Furthermore, the effects of stepfather direct investments seem to vary between child outcomes.

Patricide and steppatricide victims and offenders: an empirical analysis of U.S. arrest data.

Almost all of the literature on male parricide victims focuses on fathers killed with only little information available on stepparents killed. This study is the first to compare the victim, offender, and case correlates in incidents when fathers and stepfathers were killed. Supplementary Homicide Report data were used for the period 1976 to 2007 to investigate similarities and differences between the two male victim parricide types in the United States. Similarities between fathers and stepfathers included more than 80% of fathers and stepfathers were killed in single victim, single offender homicides. Their killers were adult sons and stepsons in more than 70% of the cases. Juvenile offenders were significantly less likely to be involved in the killings of fathers and stepfathers in more recent years. Significant differences emerged with respect to age and weapon use in the killings of fathers and stepfathers. Stepfathers and stepchildren, relative to fathers and their offspring, were significantly younger. Juvenile offenders were significantly more likely than their adult counterparts to use firearms to kill fathers (79% vs. 54%) and stepfathers (72% vs. 58%). Significant gender differences in weapons used to kill fathers were found among juvenile and adult offenders, with males more likely to use firearms than females. Reasons for the possible differences are discussed in the conclusion.

Fathering and Adolescent Adjustment: Variations by Family Structure and Ethnic Background.

The current study investigated how fathering behaviors (acceptance, rejection, monitoring, consistent discipline, and involvement) are related to preadolescent adjustment in Mexican American and European American stepfamilies and intact families. Cross-sectional data from 393 7th graders, their schoolteachers, and parents were used to examine links between different dimensions of fathering and adolescent outcomes. Following an ecological multivariate model, family SES, marital satisfaction, and mothers' parenting were included as controls. In all contexts, fathering had significant effects on adolescent adjustment. Both mothers' parenting and adolescent gender moderated the associations, and we uncovered some provocative nonlinear relations between fathering and adolescent outcomes. The importance of ethnicity and family structure in studies of fathering are highlighted.

The life histories of American stepfathers in evolutionary perspective.

This paper presents an analysis of the characteristics of men who become stepfathers, and their subsequent fertility patterns and lifetime reproductive success. Because women who already have children are ranked lower in the marriage market than women without children, men who marry women with children (e.g., stepfathers) are likely to have lower rankings in the marriage market as well. Using retrospective fertility and marital histories from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID), I show that men who become stepfathers have lower levels of education, less income, and are more likely to have been divorced before and to already have children, all characteristics that lower their rankings in the marriage market. Men with one or two stepchildren are just as likely to have children within a marriage as non-stepfathers, although men with three stepchildren show decreased fertility. Among men age 45 and older, stepfathers have lower lifetime fertility than non-stepfathers, although the difference disappears when men's age at first marriage is controlled for. Additionally, stepfathers have significantly higher fertility than men who never marry. The results suggest that some men become stepfathers to procure mates and fertility benefits that they would otherwise have been unlikely to obtain; for these men, raising other men's children serves as a form of mating effort.