Inconstitucionalidade da criminalização do médico pela prática de eutanásia / Unconstitutionality of criminalizing physicians for the practice of euthanasia / Inconstitucionalidad de la criminalización del médico por la práctica de la eutanasia

Resumo Este estudo objetivou evidenciar a inconstitucionalidade da aplicação dos arts. 121 e 122 do Código Penal brasileiro à prática de eutanásia. Para isso, realizou-se análise crítica desses artigos, considerando os fundamentos constitucionais e casos de paciente com doença grave e incurável acometido por sofrimento insuportável. Serviram de base a Constituição Federal brasileira, a doutrina do direito constitucional e a Ação Direta de Inconstitucionalidade 3.510-DF/2008. Após a análise, verificou-se a incompatibilidade dos referidos artigos com a moldura constitucional, concluindo-se que a aplicação desses dispositivos legais à prática de eutanásia usurpa a autonomia do cidadão para proteger apenas uma dimensão da vida, às custas da violação de direitos fundamentais: dignidade da pessoa humana, liberdade, inviolabilidade da vida privada e não ser submetido a tortura nem a tratamento desumano ou degradante.

Abstract This study aimed to show the unconstitutionality of applying arts. 121 and 122 of the Brazilian Penal Code to the practice of euthanasia. To this end, we carried out a critical analysis of these articles, considering the constitutional foundations and cases of patients with severe and incurable diseases affected by unbearable suffering. It was based on the Brazilian Federal Constitution, the doctrine of constitutional law, and the Direct Action for the Declaration of Unconstitutionality 3,510-DF/2008. After the analysis, we found incompatibility of these articles with the constitutional framework, concluding that the application of these legal provisions to the practice of euthanasia usurps citizen autonomy to protect only one dimension of life, at the expense of violating fundamental rights: dignity of the human person, freedom, inviolability of private life, and not being subjected to torture or inhuman or degrading treatment.

Resumen Este estudio tuvo como objetivo poner de manifiesto la inconstitucionalidad de la aplicación de los artículos 121 y 122 del Código Penal brasileño a la práctica de eutanasia. Para ello, se llevó a cabo un análisis crítico de estos artículos, teniendo en cuenta los fundamentos constitucionales y casos de paciente con enfermedad grave e incurable que padecen un sufrimiento insoportable. Se utilizaron como base la Constitución Federal brasileña, la doctrina del derecho constitucional y la Acción Directa de Inconstitucionalidad 3.510-DF/2008. Tras el análisis, se comprobó la incompatibilidad de dichos artículos con el marco constitucional y se llegó a la conclusión de que la aplicación de estas disposiciones legales a la práctica de eutanasia usurpa la autonomía del ciudadano para proteger una sola dimensión de la vida, a expensas de la violación de derechos fundamentales: la dignidad de la persona humana, la libertad, la inviolabilidad de la vida privada y el derecho a no ser sometido a tortura ni a trato inhumano o degradante.

Pendiente resbaladiza de la muerte asistida en los Países Bajos, Bélgica y Colombia / An analysis of the "slippery slope" of assisted death

The study analyzes the phenomenon of the "slippery slope" of assisted death in The Netherlands, Belgium, and Colombia after the depenalization or legalization of this practice. Data analysis was performed reviewing the evidence published in scientific journals and in the governments' official reports. We verified a progressive broadening of the limits initially established by the law for the practice of assisted death in these three countries. This confirms the occurrence of the "slippery slope". Also, the exponential increase in the number of assisted deaths in these three countries after the legalization indirectly suggests the presence of the "slippery slope". An analysis of the anthropological and ethical implications of assisted death highlights that its moral assessment should not be exclusively based on consequentialist arguments. Also, a prudential interpretation of the slippery slope argument in the legal debate about assisted death should be incorporated. We conclude that the moral evaluation of assisted death cannot be exclusively grounded on its negative social consequences, but rather on the lack of respect for basic human values such as life and the intrinsic dignity of a person. The verification of the "slippery slope" in these three countries should be regarded as an alarm for an eventual legalization of euthanasia in Chile.

Impacto social de la despenalización de la muerte médicamente asistida / The social impact of physician-assisted death legalization

The debate on legalization of physician-assisted death (PAD) has focused on its purely individual aspects, leaving aside equally relevant social dimensions such as a progressive expansion of PAD's causes, strains and changes in the doctor-patient relationship, and unreported PADs. The aim of this work was to explore these aspects through an analysis of the experience of Belgium and the Netherlands, countries where PAD is legal since 2002. The results, obtained through a systematic review of the literature, indicate that in both countries, the acceptance of the concept of "psychological suffering" allowed PAD to be performed in psychiatric patients, in persons with dementia and in older people with geriatric conditions. The acceptance to perform a PAD has a significant emotional burden for the physician who must assume the role of executor of the patient's will, which is aggravated by pressures from patients and their relatives. Moreover, more than 30% of PADs are not reported. All this information was obtained from physicians not willing to incriminate themselves, after the commission of the PADs, therefore hampering the monitoring of law abiding. These results reveal the existence of a social impact of PAD decriminalization that deserves greater consideration and further studies.

Eutanasia: aclarando conceptos / Clarifying concepts on euthanasia

Euthanasia is a subject of permanent discussion everywhere, mainly about its ethical appropriateness and about its legalization in different countries. This debate includes many ethical, legal, social, political, spiritual, religious, and public health issues. A relevant problem is the frequent misunderstanding that many have about the meaning of the terms and concepts used in different ethical and clinical end of life settings. Many views and even texts are affected by such mistakes, rendering a constructive discussion almost impossible. The goal of this article is to contribute to an improvement of the social and legislative discussion about euthanasia through an elucidation of the main terms and notions linked to this topic. We present definitions and explanations for euthanasia, assisted suicide, withdrawal or foregoing of therapy, treatment rejection, palliative sedation, dignified death and others.

¿Contradice la eutanasia o el suicidio asistido el ethos médico? Orientaciones para una ética médica moderna y pluralista / Is there a contradiction between medical ethos and euthanasia?

The practice of euthanasia in the medical context has a plurality of actors and interests, has ethical issues and the definition of "good death" is complicated. Therefore, it is necessary to be clear about the key concepts in the debate about this practice. But, above all we must ask ourselves to what extent euthanasia or assisted suicide contradicts the medical ethos in contemporary culture, aiming to evaluate the most acceptable medical and ethical options in our pluralistic societies. Only after such reflection and clarification, we will be able to understand the ethical conflicts of this practice and propose the appropriate ethical guidelines.

Legalización de muerte médicamente asistida: discusión sobre el potencial impacto en el desarrollo de cuidados paliativos / Legalization of medically assisted death: its potential impact on the development of palliative care

In Chile, there are four bills to legalize euthanasia, an act which public surveys report as supported by most of the population. At the legislative, healthcare and social level, there is an active debate about euthanasia, the rights of terminally ill patients and the context of Palliative Care (PC) in the country. Chilean literature on euthanasia focuses mainly on the ethical analysis of the act itself but does not address the moral legitimacy of the legalization of this practice. This distinction is relevant since the probity of a particular action does not determine the moral legitimacy of its implementation at a public policy level. One aspect of this dimension is the potential negative impact of the legalization of physician-assisted death (PAD) on the development of PC services. This issue is particularly relevant in Chile, where PC provision is currently suboptimal and mostly restricted to cancer patients. This paper analyses available evidence on the potential impairment of PC development after PAD legalization. Although the analysis of evidence has some limitations, this concern is not supported by the available evidence. However, any project about PAD legalization must contemplate a factual commitment with the development of minimum PC provision, according to international recommendations.

Argumentos éticos a favor y en contra de la participación del profesional médico en la muerte asistida. Análisis del Departamento de Ética del Colegio Médico de Chile / Ethical arguments for and against the participation of the medical profession in assisted death: analysis of the Ethics Department of the Chilean Medical Association

The discussion of a bill that allows medically assisted death (MAD) in Chile, revived the debate about the ethics of this practice. The Department of Ethics of the Chilean Medical Association herein analyzes arguments in favor or against the participation of the medical profession in MAD. Among the main arguments against the participation of physicians in this practice are that MAD conflicts with the basic ethical principles of medical practice, that it is contrary to the purposes of medicine and that it could erode the patients' and society's confidence in physicians. The arguments in favor are related to physician´s compassion and non-abandonment of patients during their illness, choosing palliative care and ushering them to the final instance. Additionally, there is social expectation that this practice will be carried out by trained physicians who can verify that the strict criteria established by the legislation are met, guarantee that it obeys to a repeated request of a fully capable patient, and who is able to deal with the complications of the procedure. In this document we aimed to represent the different perspectives about physicians' participation in MAD, offering arguments to colleagues and stimulating their participation in this important debate.

Attitudes towards physician-assisted suicide and euthanasia in Spanish university students / Actitudes hacia la eutanasia y el suicidio medicamente asistido en estudiantes universitarios españoles / Atitudes em relação a eutanásia e suicídio medicamente assistido em estudantes universitários espanhóis

Abstract Attitudes toward physician-assisted death among medical students differ between populations. The aim of this study was to explore attitudes towards euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide among Spanish university students. A cross-sectional survey was conducted by asking undergraduate students (Medicine, Nursing and Law) of the University of Santiago de Compostela to complete an anonymous 17-item questionnaire. Most participants exhibited a positive attitude towards physician-assisted suicide (54%) and euthanasia (75%), as well as towards their legalization. Attitudes were consistent with the underlying ethical reasoning, with no differences in terms of age, gender or academic degree. In addition, consistency was found between attitudes and willingness to participate in physician-assisted suicide and euthanasia, should they be legal. The results showed that the attitudes of medical students towards euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide were positive and similar to non-medical students.

Resumen La actitud de los estudiantes de Medicina ante a la muerte médicamente asistida difiere entre poblaciones. El objetivo de este estudio ha sido explorar las actitudes hacia la eutanasia y el suicidio médicamente asistido en estudiantes universitarios españoles. Se realizó una encuesta transversal en estudiantes de grado (Medicina, Enfermería y Derecho) de la Universidad de Santiago de Compostela que completaron un cuestionario anónimo de 17 preguntas. La mayoría de los participantes mostraron una actitud positiva hacia el suicidio médicamente asistido (54%) y la eutanasia (75%), así como hacia su legalización. Las actitudes fueron coherentes con los argumentos éticos, no encontrando diferencias en relación con la edad, el sexo o la titulación. Asimismo, las actitudes estaban de acuerdo con la intención de participar en estos procedimientos, si fueran legales. Los resultados muestran que la actitud de los estudiantes de medicina hacia la eutanasia y el suicidio asistido es positiva y similar a la de estudiantes de enfermería y derecho.

Resumo A atitude dos estudantes de medicina ante a morte medicamente assistida difere entre populações. O objetivo deste estudo foi explorar as atitudes para a eutanásia e o suicídio medicamente assistido em estudantes universitários espanhóis. Foi realizada uma pesquisa transversal em estudantes de graduação (medicina, enfermagem e direito) da Universidade de Santiago de Compostela que completaram um questionário anônimo de 17 perguntas. A maioria dos participantes mostrou atitude positiva para o suicídio medicamente assistido (54%) e a eutanásia (75%), bem como para a sua legalização. As atitudes foram coerentes com os argumentos éticos, não encontrando diferenças em relação a idade, sexo ou titulação. Assim mesmo, as atitudes estavam de acordo com a intenção de participar nestes procedimentos, se fossem legais. Os resultados mostram que a atitude dos estudantes de medicina para a eutanásia e o suicídio assistido é positiva e similar à de estudantes de enfermagem e direito.

Reflexões sobre cuidados a pacientes críticos em final de vida / Reflections on care for critical patients at the end of life / Reflexiones sobre los cuidados brindados a pacientes críticos en el final de la vida

Resumo A influência do pragmatismo tecnológico nos cuidados de saúde oferecidos a pacientes criticamente enfermos, sobretudo àqueles na terminalidade da vida, faz a maioria deles terminar seus dias em unidade de terapia intensiva. Este artigo defende atendimento mais humanizado para essas pessoas e propõe reflexão bioética sobre a temática. O texto é dividido em três partes. Inicialmente apresenta-se a realidade das unidades de terapia intensiva no Brasil, baseando-se na Resolução 2.156/2016 do Conselho Federal de Medicina, que disciplina o uso e os procedimentos médicos nestes setores. Em seguida, contextualiza-se a discussão sobre algumas questões relativas ao final da vida, a partir de pesquisa internacional realizada em quatro países: Estados Unidos, Japão, Itália e Brasil. A última parte é dedicada à análise da eutanásia e do suicídio assistido, considerando argumentos técnicos e morais apresentados pelo médico e bioeticista norte-americano Ezekiel Emanuel.

Abstract The influence of technological pragmatism in health care offered to critically ill patients, especially to those who are in the end of life, makes most of them end their days in an intensive care unit. This article defends more humanized care for these people and proposes bioethical reflection on the subject. The text is divided into three parts. Initially, the study presents the reality of intensive care units in Brazil, based on Resolução 2.156/2016 [Resolution 2,156/2016] of the Brazilian Federal Council of Medicine, which disciplines medical use and procedures in these sectors. Subsequently, the discussion on some end-of-life issues is contextualized considering international research carried out in four countries, namely: the United States, Japan, Italy and Brazil. The last part is dedicated to the analysis of euthanasia and assisted suicide, considering technical and moral arguments presented by the American physician and bioethicist Ezekiel Emanuel.

Resumen La influencia del pragmatismo tecnológico en los cuidados de salud que se ofrecen a los pacientes críticamente enfermos, especialmente a aquellos que se encuentran en la terminalidad de la vida, hace que la mayoría de ellos terminen sus días en una unidad de cuidados intensivos. Este artículo defiende una atención más humanizada para estas personas y propone la reflexión bioética sobre el tema. El texto se divide en tres partes. Inicialmente, se presenta la realidad de las unidades de cuidados intensivos en Brasil, de acuerdo con la Resolución 2.156/2016 del Consejo Federal de Medicina, que regula el uso y los procedimientos médicos en estos sectores. Seguidamente, se contextualiza la discusión sobre algunas cuestiones relativas al final de la vida, a partir de la investigación internacional llevada a cabo en cuatro países: Estados Unidos, Japón, Italia y Brasil. La última parte está dedicada al análisis de la eutanasia y el suicidio asistido, considerando los argumentos técnicos y morales presentados por el médico y bioeticista norteamericano Ezekiel Emanuel.

Suicídio assistido e eutanásia na perspectiva de profissionais e acadêmicos de um hospital universitário / Assisted suicide and euthanasia from the perspective of professionals and academics in a university hospital / Suicidio asistido y eutanasia en la perspectiva de profesionales y estudiantes de un hospital universitario

Resumo Objetivou-se identificar a atitude de profissionais e acadêmicos de enfermagem, fisioterapia, medicina e psicologia de um hospital universitário perante suicídio assistido e eutanásia. O estudo foi desenvolvido por meio de questionário de autopreenchimento e contou com 354 participantes, entre os quais, 68,1% concordaram com a legalização do suicídio assistido e 73,2% com a legalização da eutanásia para pacientes com doenças terminais. A concordância com a legalização do suicídio assistido ou da eutanásia foi de 46,9% em casos de pacientes com doenças neurodegenerativas progressivas e de 30,8% em casos de tetraplegia. Em casos de doenças terminais, se legalizados, 45% dos participantes cometeriam suicídio assistido, 57% solicitariam eutanásia, 36,5% auxiliariam suicídio assistido e 39,9% auxiliariam eutanásia. Conclui-se que a ampla aceitação da legalização da eutanásia e do suicídio assistido entre os participantes enfatiza a necessidade de se ampliar a discussão sobre o tema entre a população.

Abstract The objective of this study was to identify the attitude of professionals and academics in a university hospital regarding assisted suicide and euthanasia. The study was conducted using a questionnaire and included 354 participants. In cases of patients with terminal illnesses, 68.1% of participants supported the legalization of assisted suicide and 73.2% supported the legalization of euthanasia. The support for legalization of assisted suicide or euthanasia was 46.9% in cases of patients with progressive neurodegenerative diseases and 30.8% in cases of tetraplegia. In cases of terminal illnesses, if those were legalized, 45% of participants would commit assisted suicide, 57% would request euthanasia, 36.5% would aid in assisted suicide and 39.9% would aid in euthanasia. In conclusion, the great support for legalization of euthanasia and assisted suicide among the participants emphasizes the need to broaden the discussion on the subject in the population.

Resumen Se tuvo como objetivo identificar la actitud de profesionales y estudiantes de enfermería, fisioterapia, medicina y psicología de un hospital universitario ante el suicidio asistido y la eutanasia. El estudio fue desarrollado por medio de un cuestionario de auto-llenado y contó con 354 participantes, entre los cuales el 68,1% concordó con la legalización del suicidio asistido y el 73,2% con la legalización de la eutanasia para pacientes con enfermedades terminales. La concordancia con la legalización del suicidio asistido o de la eutanasia fue del 46,9% en casos de pacientes con enfermedades neurodegenerativas progresivas y del 30,8% en casos de tetraplejia. En los casos de enfermedades terminales, si se legalizara, el 45% de los participantes practicaría suicidio asistido, el 57% solicitaría eutanasia, el 36,5% colaboraría en el suicidio asistido y el 39,9% colaboraría en la eutanasia. Se concluye que la amplia aceptación de la legalización de la eutanasia y del suicidio asistido entre los participantes enfatiza la necesidad de ampliar la discusión sobre el tema entre la población.

Eutanasia en Chile: una discusión pendiente / Euthanasia in Chile

Euthanasia is a complex medical procedure. Even though end of life decisions are common situations in health practice, there is a lack of consensus about their terminology. In this manuscript, the main concepts about this issue are defined and delimited; including active and passive euthanasia and limitation of therapeutic effort. Then, a revision is made about the international experience on euthanasia, to then go through the Chile’s history in euthanasia and the population’s opinion. In Chile, euthanasia is an act that has been removed from the social dialogue and legislation. In order to have an open discussion in our population about the issue, the debate has to be opened to the citizens, accompanied by clear medical information about the procedure.

Desarrollos recientes en la jurisprudencia sobre el derecho a morir / Recent case law about the right to die

This paper reviews the sentences dictated between 1993 and 2002 by the Supreme Courts of Canada and the Unites States, the House of Lords and Supreme Court of the United Kingdom and the European Human Rights Court, about the validity of the legal prohibition of assistance for suicide. These sentences constituted a judicial consensus about the right to die. This consensus recognized the legal right of patients to reject medical treatments but did not recognize the right to be assisted by a physician to commit suicide. This exclusion is changing in the recent case law of Canada and the United Kingdom, which accepts the fundamental right of terminal patients to medically assisted suicide.

Matar, dejar morir y eutanasia en el proyecto de ley sobre derechos de las personas y en la doctrina chilena / To kill, let die and euthanasia in the bill of rights of patients and in the Chilean doctrine

The Bill of Rights for Patients provides the patient with autonomy for disposing of his life, enabling him to reject those treatments that unnecessarily prolong his life. However, the bill does not allow an artificial acceleration of death. Therefore, the bill does not permit euthanasia (at least, certain form of it) nor assisted-suicide. However, according to the practice of medicine and also Chilean doctrine, it is permitted to inject morphine to a patient to relieve his pain, even though that could hasten his death. In consequence, it is allowed for the patient to dispose of his life and also to inject in him morphine for pain relief, endangering his life, but neither euthanasia nor assisted-suicide is allowed. Is this coherent? According to Chilean doctrine, it could be coherent under the condition of accepting the distinction between killing and letting die and also the double effect doctrine. The problem is that there is abundant English literature in the realm of moral philosophy to disregard both conditions. Therefore, it is possible to claim that the Bill is not coherent and that the Chilean doctrine is based upon a distinction and a doctrine that are not acceptable.