Symptoms of Prolonged Social Withdrawal, Problematic Internet Use, and Psychotic-Like Experiences in Emerging Adulthood: A Moderation Model.

Objective: Prolonged social withdrawal (PSW) or hikikomori and problematic internet use (PIU) have attracted the attention of mental health experts worldwide. The scientific literature suggests a complex relationship between these conditions and psychotic-like experiences (PLEs) or disorders. In the present cross-sectional study, we tested the role of PIU symptoms as a moderator of the relationship between symptoms of PSW and PLEs in a sample of 238 Italian emerging adults. Method: Data was collected using the 25-item Hikikomori Questionnaire, the Internet Disorder Scale, the Brief Prodromal Questionnaire, and the Brief Symptom Inventory. In addition, lifetime psychological disorders and drug and alcohol use during the last month were explored. No participant reported a lifetime episode of schizophrenia or other psychotic disorder. Results: Symptoms of PSW and PIU were significantly associated with PLEs total distress and PLEs total number of symptoms endorsed, after adjustment for age and symptoms of depression and anxiety. Further, PIU symptoms moderated the relationship between symptoms of PSW and PLEs total distress (b= 2.745, s.e.= 1.089, p= 0.012). However, PIU symptoms did not moderate the relationship between PSW and PLEs total symptoms (b= 0.615, s.e.= 0.349, p= 0.078). This study is limited because the participants were most likely university students and because of the cross-sectional design. Conclusions: Findings from this study partially support the role of high symptoms of PIU as a risk factor in the relationship between symptoms of PSW and PLEs. Future longitudinal research is needed to confirm our findings examining the temporal relationship between PSW, PIU, and PLEs using both dimensional and categorical approaches.

Stigmatizing attitudes toward Internet gaming disorder, Problematic smartphone use and Problematic social networking site use: An experimental vignette study.

Public stigma on substance and gambling disorders have been well documented. Negative effects of stigma include shame, embarrassment, fear being judged and the determent of help-seeking behaviors among stigmatized individuals. Less is known about the public perception toward Internet gaming disorder (IGD) and other widespread problematic behaviors that share some characteristics with established behavioral addictions, such as Problematic smartphone use (PSU) and Problematic social networking sites use (PSNSU). The purpose of this study is to compare the public perception of problematic Internet gamers, problematic smartphone users and problematic social networking sites users using an experimental within-group vignette study design. A sample of 280 adults (F = 72.1%; Mage = 32.84, SD = 13.85) was recruited and completed the study online. Participants were presented with male OR female vignettes (i.e. the gender of the target in the vignette was randomized) describing an individual with IGD, PSU, and PSNSU. A repeated-measures ANOVA followed by post hoc tests using Bonferroni's correction was used. IGD was seen as more serious, more noticeable, and less understandable than both PSU and PSNU. Moreover, participants' emotional reaction (e.g., anger and sadness) and desired social distance were significantly stronger toward IGD. However, vanity attributions were higher for individuals with PSNSU, which were also more blamed compared to both IGD and PSU. PSU was seen as more controllable than both IGD and PSNSU. The results, taken together, suggest that IGD is perceived as more inherently problematic, but PSNSU also seem to deserve scientific attention as individuals showing symptoms of PSNSU are blamed more than problematic Internet gamers. Our findings provide initial information that can be used when developing interventions to impact stigma toward technological addictions.

Tecnotest: Desarrollo de una herramienta de screening de adicciones tecnológicas y juego / Tecnotest: A screening tool for technological addictions and gambling disorder

Una de las demandas sociales y científicas más acuciantes, que se plasma en las actuales líneas prioritarias del Plan Nacional sobre Drogas (PNSD) es el desarrollo de herramientas de screening para la detección temprana de adicciones, singularmente adicciones sin sustancia, debido al impacto que estas están teniendo en el desarrollo de adicciones desde hace unos años, especialmente en adolescentes y jóvenes. Objetivo. El objetivo principal de esta investigación fue el desarrollo de una herramienta de screening de adicciones tecnológicas (videojuegos, móvil y redes sociales) y al juego para vincular la detección temprana con la intervención y la prevención en el campo de las adicciones conductuales. Método. Participantes. Participaron en el estudio 1.813 estudiantes de entre 11 y 19 años de 13 comunidades autónomas. Instrumentos. Se desarrolló una encuesta con cuatro pruebas validadas sobre adicciones tecnológicas y al juego. Procedimiento. Para la construcción de la herramienta de screening se seleccionaron los tres elementos que obtuvieron mayor Valor Predictivo Positivo (VPP) de cada una de las cuatro pruebas validadas para diferenciar entre quienes utilizaban las tecnologías y/o jugaban de un modo social y no tenían ningún problema de aquellos que ya tenían un problema adictivo. Resultados. Se obtuvo una herramienta de uso de las tecnologías y juego que consta de 24 ítems (12 ítems de cribado de las cuatro tecnologías y 12 de uso de las mismas) con sus principales propiedades psicométricas (fiabilidad, estructura factorial). Discusión. La escala tiene unas adecuadas propiedades psicométricas y es congruente teóricamente. Se presenta la herramienta definitiva de screening, la cual queda a disposición de las/os psicólogas/os para la detección temprana de personas que puedan padecer alguna de estas adicciones, en cuyo caso podrían ser derivados a los recursos sanitarios especializados. (AU)

One of the most pressing social and scientific issues, as reflected in the current priority lines of the National Drugs Plan (PNSD), is the development of screening tools for the early detection of addictions, particularly behavioral addictions, due to the impact that these problems are having on the growth of addictions in recent years, especially in adolescents and young people. Goal. The main goal of this research was to develop a screening tool for technological addictions (video games, mobile and social networks) and gambling for early detection in people suffering this kind of behavioral addiction. Procedure. With technologies, in the absence of agreed clinical criteria, those participants who perceived themselves as having problems and, in addition, had received treatment for it, were selected. Regarding gambling, the diagnostic criteria of the DSM-5 were used. The three items that scored the highest Positive Predictive Values (PPV) in each of the four validated tests were selected. These indicators serve to distinguish those who use the technologies and/or gamble in a functional way and do not have any problems from those who already have an addictive problem with video games, mobile, social networks or gambling. Results. This paper shows the finished screening tool with its main psychometric properties, which can be used by professionals working with adolescents in order to detect people who could have some addictive problem, in which case the psychologist can refer them to a specialized healthcare resource. (AU)

Technological Addictions.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Modern methods of communication and engagement, such as social media, video games, and online shopping, use a variety of behavioral techniques to encourage and reward frequent use, opening the door to addiction. The technological addictions (TAs) are a set of disorders that accompany the technological advances that define the digital age. The TAs are an active source of research in the literature, with promising treatment options already available. RECENT FINDINGS: There are promising therapeutic and psychopharmacologic treatments for a broad range of TAs. Stimulants, antidepressants, and cognitive therapies may all be effective for internet gaming disorder (IGD). Cognitive therapies may be effective for other TAs, such as social media addiction (SMA), online shopping addiction (OSA), and online porn addiction. Society's dependence on addictive technologies will only increase. Many of the TAs can be addressed with medication and therapy, with more research and literature developing at a rapid pace.

Identifying the central symptoms of problematic social networking sites use through network analysis.

BACKGROUND: Problematic social media use (PSMU) has received growing attention in the last fifteen years. Even though PSMU has been extensively studied, its internal structure is not fully understood. We used network analysis to evaluate which symptoms and associations between symptoms are most central to PSMU - as assessed by the Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale-2 adapted for PSMU - among undergraduates. METHOD: Network analysis was applied to a large gender-balanced sample of undergraduates (n = 1344 participants; M = 51.9%; mean age = 22.50 ± 2.20 years). RESULTS: The most central nodes in the network were the difficulty of controlling one's own use of social media, the tendency to think obsessively about going online, the difficulties in resisting the urge to use social media and the preference for communicating with people online rather than face-to-face. This last element was strongly associated with a general preference for online social interactions and the feeling of being more comfortable online. The network was robust to stability and accuracy tests. The mean levels of symptoms and symptom centrality were not associated. CONCLUSIONS: Deficient self-regulation and preference for online communication were the most central symptoms of PSMU, suggesting that these symptoms should be prioritized in theoretical models of PSMU and could also serve as important treatment targets for PSMU interventions.

Adaptation and Validation of the Polish Version of the 10-Item Mobile Phone Problematic Use Scale.

Pathological use of smartphones may be the biggest non-drug addiction of the 21st century. Therefore, rapid screening tools designed for easy identification of people with problematic mobile phone use are needed. The main aim of the present study was to validate a short version of the Mobile Phone Problematic Use Scale (MPPUS-10) in the Polish population. The study comprised 640 university students aged 18-38 years. We used a self-report questionnaire that included questions regarding socio-demographic variables and Polish versions of the Mobile Phone Problem Use Scale (MPPUS-10), Mobile Phone Addiction Assessment Questionnaire (MPAAQ in Polish KBUTK), and Internet Addiction Test (IAT) by Kimberly Young. The analysis showed high reliability for the final Polish version of MPPUS-10 (Cronbach's α = 0.78) and confirmed a significant correlation between the MPPUS-10 and the MPAAQ, which was previously used in Poland (rho = 0.56; p < 0.001). Due to the poor correlation of item number 10 with other items, we suggest dropping this item and using the nine-item Polish version. Our result also confirmed significant correlation between the MPPUS-10 and the IAT (rho = 0.54; p < 0.001). The contribution of the study is the Polish validation and adaptation of the MPPUS-10 scale with confirmed psychometric values. It provides a quick and convenient screening tool to assess problematic mobile phone use. Our results also indicate the need for a revision of available diagnostic tools in Poland.

Problematic Use of the Internet and Smartphones in University Students: 2006-2017.

It has been more than a decade since a concern about the addictive use of the Internet and mobile phones was first expressed, and its possible inclusion into the lists of mental disorders has recently become a popular topic of scientific discussion. Thus, it seems to be a fitting moment to investigate the prevalence of this issue over time. The aim of the present study was to analyze the prevalence of the perception of problematic Internet and smartphone use in young people over the period 2006-2017. To this end, a questionnaire on Internet use habits and two questionnaires on the negative consequences of Internet and smartphone use were administered to a sample of 792 university students. The scores were then compared with the results of former studies that had used these questionnaires. The perception of problematic Internet and mobile phone use has increased over the last decade, social networks are considered responsible for this increase, and females are perceived to be more affected than males. The current study shows how strong smartphone and Internet addiction and social media overlap. Participants from 2017 report higher negative consequences of both Internet and mobile phone use than those from 2006, but long-term observations show a decrease in problematic use after a sharp increase in 2013. We conclude that the diagnosis of technological addictions is influenced by both time and social and culture changes.

Análisis psicométrico del test de dependencia de videojuegos (TDV) en población peruana / Psychometric analysis of the Test of Dependence of Videogames (TDV) in Peruvian population

Resumen El objetivo del presente trabajo es validar en población peruana, el Test de Dependencia de Videojuegos (TDV) (Chóliz & Marco, 2011). Los resultados obtenidos demuestran que se trata de una herramienta confiable y válida. Se encontró una sola estructura factorial, en lugar de cuatro dimensiones, como plantearon los autores del TDV. Este factor podría denominarse genéricamente: adicción a videojuegos, y podría servir como evidencia de la existencia de este trastorno, que coincidiría con el denominado 'Trastorno de Juego por Internet', que aparece en la Sección III del DSM-5. Los resultados hallados se discuten en relación a lo planteado por Chóliz y Marco (2011), en lo que se refiere a las diferencias en cuanto a sexo, edad y la estructura interna del instrumento.

Abstract The objective of this work is the validation of the Test of Dependence of Videogames (TDV) (Chóliz & Marco, 2011) in Peruvian population. The results show that it is a reliable and valid tool. We found a single factorial structure, rather than four dimensions as the authors of the TDV raised. This factor could be generically called: 'Addiction to video games', and could serve as evidence of the existence of this disorder, which would coincide with the so-called "Disorder online Game" listed in Section III of the DSM-5. The results found are discussed in relation to Chóliz & Marco (2011) in terms of differences in sex, age and the internal structure of the instrument.

Investigating the differential effects of social networking site addiction and Internet gaming disorder on psychological health.

Background and aims Previous studies focused on examining the interrelationships between social networking site (SNS) addiction and Internet gaming disorder (IGD) in isolation. Moreover, little is known about the potential simultaneous differential effects of SNS addiction and IGD on psychological health. This study investigated the interplay between these two technological addictions and ascertained how they can uniquely and distinctively contribute to increasing psychiatric distress when accounting for potential effects stemming from sociodemographic and technology-related variables. Methods A sample of 509 adolescents (53.5% males) aged 10-18 years (mean = 13.02, SD = 1.64) were recruited. Results It was found that key demographic variables can play a distinct role in explaining SNS addiction and IGD. Furthermore, it was found that SNS addiction and IGD can augment the symptoms of each other, and simultaneously contribute to deterioration of overall psychological health in a similar fashion, further highlighting potentially common etiological and clinical course between these two phenomena. Finally, the detrimental effects of IGD on psychological health were found to be slightly more pronounced than those produced by SNS addiction, a finding that warrants additional scientific scrutiny. Discussion and conclusion The implications of these results are further discussed in light of the existing evidence and debates regarding the status of technological addictions as primary and secondary disorders.

Exploring Individual Differences in Online Addictions: the Role of Identity and Attachment.

Research examining the development of online addictions has grown greatly over the last decade with many studies suggesting both risk factors and protective factors. In an attempt to integrate the theories of attachment and identity formation, the present study investigated the extent to which identity styles and attachment orientations account for three types of online addiction (i.e., internet addiction, online gaming addiction, and social media addiction). The sample comprised 712 Italian students (381 males and 331 females) recruited from schools and universities who completed an offline self-report questionnaire. The findings showed that addictions to the internet, online gaming, and social media were interrelated and were predicted by common underlying risk and protective factors. Among identity styles, 'informational' and 'diffuse-avoidant' styles were risk factors, whereas 'normative' style was a protective factor. Among attachment dimensions, the 'secure' attachment orientation negatively predicted the three online addictions, and a different pattern of causal relationships were observed between the styles underlying 'anxious' and 'avoidant' attachment orientations. Hierarchical multiple regressions demonstrated that identity styles explained between 21.2 and 30% of the variance in online addictions, whereas attachment styles incrementally explained between 9.2 and 14% of the variance in the scores on the three addiction scales. These findings highlight the important role played by identity formation in the development of online addictions.

Eficacia de las técnicas de control de la impulsividad en la prevención de la adicción a videojuegos / Effectiveness of impulsivity control techniques to videogame addiction prevention

El objetivo principal de esta investigación consistió en el análisis de la eficacia de las técnicas de control de la impulsividad para la prevención de la adicción a videojuegos añadidas a un programa de prevención previamente validado (PrevTec 3.1). Los resultados se tomaron en cuatro momentos: línea base, pre-test (primera sesión), post-test (última sesión) y seguimiento (a los tres meses). Los resultados indican que, mientras los grupos que permanecen en lista de espera no presentan cambios ni en el patrón de uso ni en la dependencia de videojuegos, aquellos en los que se aplica el programa sí que experimentan un descenso significativo. Las dos modalidades del programa de prevención son eficaces en la reducción de las variables analizadas, pero los resultados se mantienen más consistentes durante el seguimiento a quienes se entrenaron las técnicas de control de la impulsividad.

The main objective of this research has been the analysis of the effectiveness of some impulsivity control techniques to prevent videogame addiction. It has compared the results obtained with a prevention program that it had been already validated with the same program in which additional impulsiveness control techniques were added. Four periods were selected for the analysis: baseline, pre-test, post-test and follow-up. Two experimental conditions were designed: a) conventional prevention program, and b) program with impulsiveness control techniques. Results were compared with a group control (waiting list). Results indicate that, while groups that remain on waiting list do not present changes in pattern of use, those which the program was applied decrease significantly. The two modalities of prevention program were effective in the reduction of the analyzed variables, but the changes produced by the implementation of impulsive control techniques were more consistent and lasting in time.

Development of a Brief Multicultural Version of the Test of Mobile Phone Dependence (TMDbrief) Questionnaire.

UNLABELLED: The Test of Mobile Phone Dependence (TMD) questionnaire (Chóliz, 2012) evaluates the main features of mobile phone dependence: tolerance, abstinence syndrome, impaired impulse control, associated problems, excessive use, etc. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to develop a multicultural version of the TMD (TMDbrief) adapted to suit the novel communication tools of smartphones. PROCEDURE: In this study, the TMD was completed by 2,028 young respondents in six distinct world regions: Southern Europe, Northwest Europe, South-America, Mesoamerica, Pakistan, and India. RESULTS: Psychometric analysis of the reliability of the instrument and factor analysis were performed to adapt the TMDbrief for use in these regions. Differences among regions with respect to TMD Mobile Phone Dependence scores were obtained. CONCLUSION: A brief questionnaire for the evaluation of mobile phone addiction in cross-cultural studies was successfully developed.

A preliminary investigation into the prevalence and prediction of problematic cell phone use.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Likening mobile phone use dependency to the classification of excessive behaviors may be necessarily equivalent in seriousness to previously established addictions such as problematic computing or excessive gambling. The aim of the study explores into the behavior of excessive use of mobile phones as a pathological behavior. METHODS: Two studies investigated criteria for problematic mobile phone usage by examining student (Study 1, N = 301) and nonstudent (Study 2, N = 362) responses to a set of adapted mobile phone addiction inventories. Study 1 investigated cell phone addiction inventories as constructs designed to measure problematic cell phone use. Additionally, Study 2 sought to predict age, depression, extraversion, emotional stability, impulse control, and self-esteem as independent variables that augment respondents' perceptions of problematic use. RESULTS: The results from Study 1 and Study 2 indicate that 10 to 25% of the participants tested exhibited problematic cell phone usage. Additionally, age, depression, extraversion, and low impulse control are the most suitable predictors for problematic use. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the two studies indicate that problematic mobile phone use does occur and ought to be taken seriously by the psychological community. Presently, there is limited data providing conclusive evidence for a comprehensible categorization of cell phone addiction, as well as a unified explanatory model specific to problematic mobile phone use. Studies such as this one may contribute substantial findings, adding scientific significance, and offering a valuable submission for the ongoing progress of creating intervention frameworks relative to "virtual addictions".

A preliminary investigation of materialism and impulsiveness as predictors of technological addictions among young adults.

Background and aims The primary objective of the present research is to investigate the drivers of technological addiction in college students - heavy users of Information and Communication Technology (ICT). The study places cell phone and instant messaging addiction in the broader context of consumption pathologies, investigating the influence of materialism and impulsiveness on these two technologies. Clearly, cell phones serve more than just a utilitarian purpose. Cell phones are used in public and play a vital role in the lives of young adults. The accessibility of new technologies, like cell phones, which have the advantages of portability and an ever increasing array of functions, makes their over-use increasingly likely. Methods College undergraduates (N = 191) from two U.S. universities completed a paper and pencil survey instrument during class. The questionnaire took approximately 15-20 minutes to complete and contained scales that measured materialism, impulsiveness, and mobile phone and instant messaging addiction. Results Factor analysis supported the discriminant validity of Ehrenberg, Juckes, White and Walsh's (2008) Mobile Phone and Instant Messaging Addictive Tendencies Scale. The path model indicates that both materialism and impulsiveness impact the two addictive tendencies, and that materialism's direct impact on these addictions has a noticeably larger effect on cell phone use than instant messaging. Conclusions The present study finds that materialism and impulsiveness drive both a dependence on cell phones and instant messaging. As Griffiths (2012) rightly warns, however, researchers must be aware that one's addiction may not simply be to the cell phone, but to a particular activity or function of the cell phone. The emergence of multi-function smart phones requires that research must dig beneath the technology being used to the activities that draw the user to the particular technology.