[Psychosocial responses to collective trauma]. / Les réponses psychosociales aux traumatismes collectifs ­ un sujet international et transnational.

Both man-made and natural disasters are societal concerns of actuality that can take a heavy toll on people's health and well-being. It is paramount to understand how to prevent or reduce adverse psychological and social consequences in affected individuals and communities. There is currently an intention of better coordination across Europe to improve the handling of such cross-border health threats. Still, more insight is needed on how different countries respond to their population's psychosocial needs in the wake of disasters. Substantial differences in European countries' psychosocial responses to large-scale terrorist attacks are herein highlighted for Norway, France and Belgium. These differences emphasize the need to improve and harmonize the monitoring, evaluation and research on the provision of post-disaster psychosocial care and support in order to strengthen our capacities to deal with future emergencies.

Title: Les réponses psychosociales aux traumatismes collectifs ­ un sujet international et transnational. Abstract: Les catastrophes d'origine humaine ou naturelle constituent des préoccupations sociétales qui peuvent peser lourdement sur la santé et le bien-être. Il est primordial de comprendre comment prévenir ou réduire les conséquences psychologiques et sociales néfastes chez les individus et les communautés concernés. Afin de renforcer la gestion de ces menaces sanitaires transfrontalières, il existe actuellement une forte volonté d'améliorer la coordination à travers l'Europe. Il est donc essentiel de mieux comprendre comment les différents pays répondent actuellement aux besoins psychosociaux de leur population à la suite de catastrophes. De fait, notre étude met en évidence les différences substantielles qui existent dans les réponses psychosociales aux attentats terroristes à grande échelle dans trois pays européens (Norvège, France, Belgique). Elle montre qu'il sera nécessaire d'améliorer et d'harmoniser le suivi, l'évaluation et la recherche sur la fourniture de soins et de soutiens psychosociaux afin de renforcer nos capacités à faire face aux futures catastrophes.

Sublimação, angústia e violência no cenário do sofrimento psíquico contemporâneo / Sublimación y angustia en el escenario del sufrimiento psíquico contemporáneo / Sublimation, anguish and violence in the scenario of contemporary psychic suffering / Sublimación et angoisse dans le scénario de la souffrance psychique contemporaine

No cenário das expressões do sofrimento psíquico contemporâneo, os atos terroristas são recortados como veículos privilegiados da violência urbana, sendo examinados no campo de operação da sublimação, em sua relação com a angústia e com a pulsão de morte, no âmbito da sublimação da agressividade. Impõem-se uma peculiaridade essencial da ocorrência terrorista: seu estatuto de espetáculo, em seu atravessamento pela mídia, destacando-se sua repercussão eminentemente visual. Como a pulsão de saber é tributária de duas pulsões parciais, a pulsão escopofílica e a pulsão de dominação, a exposição recorrente ao fascínio de "ver" remete à capacidade de pensar, potencializando-se a operação de uma das vertentes do arcaico, mais facilmente reativada nessas circunstâncias

En el escenario de las expresiones del sufrimiento psíquico contemporáneo, los actos terroristas se acotan como vehículos privilegiados de la violencia urbana, siendo examinados en el campo en que actúa la sublimación, en su relación con la angustia y la pulsión de muerte, en el ámbito de la sublimación de la agresividad. Es necesario considerar una peculiaridad esencial del acto terrorista: su estatuto de espectáculo en su paso por los medios de comunicación, destacando su repercusión eminentemente visual. Como el pulsión del saber es consecuencia de dos pulsiones parciales, el pulsión escopofilica y el de dominación, la exposición recurrente a la fascinación de "ver" aplaza la capacidad de pensar, potenciando el funcionamiento de una de las vertientes de lo arcaico, más fácilmente reactivada en esas circunstancias

In the scenario of the expressions of contemporary psychic suffering, terrorist acts are limited as privileged vehicles of urban violence, being examined in the field of operation of sublimation, in its relation to anguish and death drive, in the scope of the sublimation of aggressiveness. It ́s required to consider an essential peculiarity of the terrorist occurrence: its status of spectacle, in its crossing by the media, highlighting its eminently visual repercussion. As the drive of knowledge is resulting from two partial drives, the scopophilic drive and the drive of domination, the recurrent exposure to the fascination of "seeing" delays the ability to think, potentiating the operation of one of the archaic sides, more easily reactivated in these circumstances

Dans le scénario des expressions de la souffrance psychique contemporaine, les actes terroristes sont définis comme des véhicules privilégiés de la violence urbaine, étant examinés dans le domaine de l'opération de sublimation, dans sa relation avec l'angoisse et la pulsion de mort, plus précisément, dans le contexte de la sublimation de l'agressivité. Une particularité essentielle de l'événement terroriste s'impose: le statut de spectacle qui lui est conféré, dans son traversée par les médias, dans lequel il se demarque sa répercussion éminemment visuelle. Comme la pulsion de savoir est tributaire de deux pulsions partiels, la pulsion scopophile et la pulsion de domination, l'exposition récurrente à la fascination de «voir¼ nous mener à la capacité même de penser, potentialisant le fonctionnement d'un des aspects de l'archaïque, plus facilement réactivé dans ces circonstances

[Protecting healthcare facilities]. / Protéger les établissements de santé.

The protection of a healthcare facility means maintaining a permanent approach of alertness for everyone working there. The hospital security plan involves internal and external players (police and emergency services), and requires the regular sharing of information and training.

[The place and markers of intra-family violence in violent extremism]. / La place et les marqueurs des violences intrafamiliales dans les extrémismes violents.

International research literature documented two red threads of extreme violence, identified misogyny and dehumanisation as the roots of extreme and violent ideologies, and revealed that support for violence against women predicts support for violent extremism more than any other factor. Research evidence documented the lasting impact of violence against women and children. Considering the place and markers of domestic violence in violent extremist trajectories means to address their driving processes and the continuum of violence characterized by constant, cumulative, non-episodic strategies used by aggressors to control and dominate the victims.

[Caring for minors returning from terrorist operation areas]. / Prendre en charge les mineurs de retour de zones d'opération de groupement terroriste.

Faced with the challenge of the children of jihadists who have joined the terrorist organisation Islamic State, France has set up an innovative and multidisciplinary system. It is strongly based on child protection law. In particular, it provides for a complete assessment to be carried out in hospital, as well as the schooling of these minors and their accompaniment by professionals from different spheres.

[Psychological care for the children of jihadists: modalities and challenges]. / La prise en charge psychologique des enfants de djihadistes : modalités et enjeux.

Since March 2017, minors returning from the terrorist groups' operation areas benefit from a medical and psychological assessment by referral centres throughout France. At the Avicenne hospital in Bobigny (AP-HP, 93), a team assesses the children of jihadists who land at Paris-Roissy-Charles-de-Gaulle airport. This evaluation raises unprecedented clinical questions and confronts professionals with challenges related to the history of these children and the context of their return.

[Living with the threat of terrorism: how to best support children?] / Vivre avec la menace terroriste : comment accompagner au mieux les enfants ?

Today's generation of children is confronted with a reality that their parents' generations did not know, that of the risk of terrorism. While mass attacks in recent months have given way to occasional attacks involving a single perpetrator and fewer victims, the risk remains omnipresent. Living with a permanent threat is not insignificant at an age where security in each other and in the future is fundamental to growing up serenely. How then can we best support children and adolescents in such a context?

[Preventing radicalisation with the necessary involvement of all]. / Prévenir la radicalisation avec la nécessaire implication de tous.

As a recent public policy, the prevention of radicalisation has been built in response to an evolving phenomenon. The implementation of tools for reporting and monitoring people undergoing radicalisation will begin in 2014. Although there is no standard profile of radicalised people, the target group for these systems is mainly young people, adults or minors. In terms of prevention of radicalisation, care covers a broad spectrum of interventions and professionals.

Treatment of post-traumatic psychiatric disorders: A continuum of immediate, post-immediate and follow-up care mediated by specific psychotherapeutic principles. Clinical experience in French-speaking countries.

BACKGROUND: People who witness a horrific event are at risk of suffering from acute psychological disorders, potentially leading to chronic post-traumatic symptoms and severe medico-psycho-social complications. Traumatised individuals suffer from psychological damage that is initially indescribable: they are often unable to ask for care in the immediate aftermath of an event. Afterwards, traumatic events and their post-traumatic consequences are still often hidden or minimised by patients for reasons linked to the disorder itself (inexpressibility, shame, depressive thoughts, fear of stigmatisation, etc.). The provision of the initial stage of care has a major impact on the long-term prognosis. Although official French recommendations remain vague, and scientific studies lack power, there is a developing professional consensus on practices, and developments in neurobiology are opening up new opportunities to validate them. OBJECTIVE: Drawing upon our clinical experience and clinical principles provided by our mentors, our aim is to clarify the phases of psychotherapeutic treatment, and we describe three practices: immediate care ("defusing"), post-immediate care ("French debriefing" or "post-immediate psychotherapeutic intervention") and follow-up care ("deferred debriefing" and psychotherapy). Although the international literature considers these phases as separate, here we describe a continuity of talking therapies that support long-term remission. RESULTS: The effectiveness of the combination of immediate, post-immediate and follow-up care has been confirmed by events surrounding the recent Paris and Nice attacks. Specific psychotherapeutic principles are unrelated to a particular school of psychotherapy (notably cognitive and behavioural therapies, analytical therapies, various forms of hypnosis, and eye-movement therapies, etc.). Instead, they refer to specific principles that are effective in the treatment of post-traumatic psychiatric disorders. By helping the individual to verbalise their experience, talking re-establishes dissociated psychological functions. A process of reconsolidation enables sensory memory to be integrated into verbal memory. Supported by psychotherapy, language can be used to discover, or construct, a new sense of meaning for the individual. CONCLUSION: A single session of post-immediate or deferred debriefing has been found to have a miraculous effect on post-traumatic symptoms, confirmed by follow-up. When disorders are chronic and complex, however, treatment can last several months or years. In each case, although certain therapeutic principles are key, other psychotherapeutic and pharmacological treatments should be adapted to the individual's clinical situation, and the symptoms they present.

On cognitive debiasing and the judgment of suicide-attackers.

Suicide-attacks are possibly increasing in frequency all over the world. To date, these attacks are not considered as a manifestation of a particular mental illness. However, the process of radicalization of suicide-attackers has to interest the field of mental health. One plausible explanation for the radicalization of individuals is the use of biased cognitive schemes by the indoctrinator. Among these cognitive schemes could figure the causal attribution bias in which the subject cannot distinguish in front of two factors that operate simultaneously, the share of each factor in achieving a certain goal. Another cognitive bias would be the confirmation bias during which the subject would tend to adhere to ideas from his/her own thinking or the thinking of subjects who share some cultural values with him/her and refute any other ideas. Finally, the bias of polarization or splitting could also be incriminated. Through this bias, the subject would either be proud of being a member of a cultural group or ashamed when he/she feels that this group is being attacked and that he/she is unable to rescue it. Approaches to increase the awareness of individuals to the adverse effects of these biased cognitive schemes may theoretically reduce the risk of committing suicide-attacks. However, despite numerous attempts of "deradicalization" involving technological means of communication as well as social "reintegration" centers, all approaches aiming at raising awareness of cognitive biases need to be studied in a scientific manner before they become widespread.

[Migration, risks and opportunities]. / Migration : risques et opportunités.

The migration is considered for a long time as a risk for mental health, to which are exposed both migrants and their descendants. Indeed, the risk of developing schizophrenia, particularly, is multiplied by 2 to 3. Today, it is offending in the 'jihadist' terrorism that bruises in countries of immigration, including France. In fact, the majority of the perpetrators of deadly attacks come from the immigrant minority. We will show that the main common factor to both phenomenons is not migration but the social exclusion which is, unfortunately often linked to it. We will also show that this exclusion is as much the fact of the host society which advocates the cultural assimilation of immigrants as that of the migrant community, trapped by its cultural defector status and its conflict of loyalty. We conclude that migration is above all an opportunity for mutual enrichment if you advocate the integration, therefore, interculturality, that is an exchange reciprocal customs and values.

[Terrorism and human behavior]. / Terrorisme et comportement humain.

OBJECTIVES: Theories of religion are essential for understanding current trends in terrorist activities. The aim of this work is to clarify religion's role in facilitating terror and outline in parallel with recent theoretical developments on terrorism and human behaviour. METHODS: Several databases were used such as PubCentral, Scopus, Medline and Science Direct. The search terms "terrorism", "social psychology", "religion", "evolution", and "cognition" were used to identify relevant studies in the databases. RESULTS: This work examines, in a multidimensional way, how terrorists employ these features of religion to achieve their goals. In the same way, it describes how terrorists use rituals to conditionally associate emotions with sanctified symbols that are emotionally evocative and motivationally powerful, fostering group solidarity, trust, and cooperation. Religious beliefs, including promised rewards in the afterlife, further serve to facilitate cooperation by altering the perceived payoffs of costly actions, including suicide bombing. The adolescent pattern of brain development is unique, and young adulthood presents an ideal developmental stage to attract recruits and enlist them in high-risk behaviors. CONCLUSIONS: This work offers insights, based on this translational analysis, concerning the links between religion, terrorism and human behavior.

[Radicalisation and geopolitics, the pathways to violence]. / Radicalisation et géopolitique, les chemins de la violence.

Although the reasons for radicalisation appear diverse, the overwhelming majority of radicalised individuals and announcements claiming responsibility for terrorist attacks make reference to the same cause: western military interventions in Muslim countries. This raises the question of the link between radicalisation and geopolitics and the need to identify the motivations and the pathway between radicalisation and violent actions.

[Terrorism, youth, ideals and paranoia]. / Terrorisme, jeunesse, idéaux et paranoïa.

Adolescence is a period of initiation during which individuals learn to free themselves from the hold of their impulses. Fanaticism prevents this process: the subject regresses into a paranoid-type sectarian and murderous way of functioning. The fanaticism of the adolescent could thereby be related to a distorted spiritual search for his or her purpose.

[Adolescent vulnerabilities and radicalisation]. / Vulnérabilités adolescentes et radicalisation.

Radicalisation resonates with the psychological vulnerabilities of adolescents. The ups and downs encountered as they attempt to construct their identity and their need to dominate favour the destructive nature of young people lacking a sense of filiation and belonging. An adolescent's engagement corresponds to a search for limits, with an adherence to religious values and to a group to establish self-esteem. Subjectification, authorising the adolescent to separate themselves from their parents and their values through a period of crisis must be supported.

Le féminin radicalisé: Du lien à la mère à la haine du lien / O feminino radicalizado: o vínculo com mãe ao ódio desse vínculo / The radicalized feminine: from the bond to the mother to the hatred of the bond / Lo femenino radicalizado : del vínculo con la madre al odio de ese vínculo

La radicalisation des femmes semble a priori opposés au féminin qui serait du coté de l'Eros. L'auteur cherche à montrer en quoi il y a, au contraire, un nouage structural entre féminité et radicalisation. Partant de l'étude de plusieurs cas cliniques, il montre comment la problématique centrale de ces femmes est la menace d'un retour au lien pré-oedipien à la mère.

Résumé A radicalização das mulheres parece, a priori, oposta ao feminino, que estaria ao lado de Eros. O autor tenta mostrar que, ao contrário, existe um nó estrutural entre a feminilidade e a radicalização. Partindo do estudo de vários casos clínicos, mostra-se que a problemática central dessas mulheres é a ameaça de um regresso ao vínculo pré-edipiano da mãe.

At first glance, women's radicalization seems to be opposed to the feminine, considered to be side by side with Eros. This paper seeks to show how, on the contrary, there is a structural link between femininity and radicalization. Based on the study of several clinical cases, it reveals how the central problem of these women is the threat of returning to the pre-Oedipal bond to the mother.

La radicalización de las mujeres parece, a priori, opuesta a lo femenino, que estaría al lado del Eros. El autor intenta mostrar que, contrario a esto, hay un nudo estructural entre la femineidad y la radicalización. Partiendo del estudio de varios casos clínicos, se muestra que la problemática central de estas mujeres es la amenaza de un regreso al vínculo preedípico con la madre.

Die Radikalisierung von Frauen kontrastiert auf den ersten Blick mit der Weiblichkeit, welche traditionell mit Eros assoziiert wird. Gegen diese Auffassung versucht dieser Artikel aufzeigen, dass eine strukturelle Verbindung zwischen Weiblichkeit und Radikalisierung existiert. Verschiedene klinische Fälle wurden analysiert um aufzuzeigen, dass das Kernproblem dieser Frauen die Gefahr einer Rückkehr zur präödipalen Verbindung zur Mutter ist.

[On-scene medical response]. / Les interventions sur le théâtre d'opération.

In cases of exceptional medical emergencies, the setting up and organisation of a response to the increased need for medical aid are complex. Command of the operations and responsibilities are assured by specific people depending on the seriousness of the situation. Each role is identified.

[Homicide-suicide: Clinical review and psychological assumptions]. / Homicide-suicide : revue clinique et hypothèses psychologiques.

OBJECTIVES: Suicide-homicide could be defined as a "suicidal" behaviour, which also includes the death of at least one other individual and sometimes up to hundreds. This literature review intends to highlight some characteristic features that might be found amongst the various types of suicide-homicide. It is a complex phenomenon which can occur in different situations, from a familial and somehow intimate setting (filicide, uxoricide, marital homicide…) to a public one (workplace shooting, school shooting), including a wide range of victims, from a single victim in marital cases of suicide-homicide to hundreds of victims in certain types, such as suicide by aircraft or warrior-like multi-homicids in terrorist acts. This literature review offers a combination of data emanating from scientific publications and case studies from our practices in an attempt to insulate some common factors. A thorough examination of the offenses unravels complex processes, ideations, M.O and peculiar cognitive impairments in which the familial suicide-homicide could be rooted. Mass murders might be caused also by a psychopathological alloy, made of Grandiose Self and sub-depressive and even paranoid ideations. Concerning the terrorism and multi-homicide-suicide, this is far more complex phenomenon and is defined by a group-process enrolment and ideological conviction. Beyond epidemiological studies, both descriptive and statistical, this paper's objective is to isolate a hypothesis about a psychopathological ground from which a criminological mechanism could emerge. Despite the lack of blatant psychosis, some traits might be identified in suicide-homicide cases - such as paranoid, psychopathic, narcissistic, melancholic - which can intertwine, potentiate one with another forming a distorted view of the world. The offense dynamic is possibly composed of preparatory behaviours, triggers, the use of death as a narcissistic support, identity choices… METHODS: The data were collected from scientific publications, personal cases, and open source. RESULTS: Despite the variety of behaviours included in this typology, we were able to identify a few mechanisms that could be found in two types of suicide-homicide [Private suicide-homicide (within the family circle) vs. Public space suicide-homicide (suicide by aircraft, school shooting…)]. DISCUSSION: Suicide-homicide phenomenon is the result of the interaction of societal, ideological, psychopathological and criminological elements which burst out in a lethal and paroxystic gesture. Psychiatrists and psychologists may have an important part to play in modelling a pattern to better understand it.

United Nations Secretary-General's Mechanism.

The credibility and legitimacy of the United Nations Secretary-General's Mechanism (UNSGM) for investigating the alleged use of biological weapons relies in part on qualified experts trained to undertake fact-finding missions using an empirical scientific approach. As observed in the 2013 investigation into the alleged use of chemical weapons in the Syrian Arab Republic, this mechanism can be an effective tool in the verification of and as a deterrent against the use of chemical and biological weapons. The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) has a memorandum of understanding with the United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs, supporting the UNSGM and providing experts for its roster for missions. As the majority of biological agents are of animal origin, the expertise of the OIE in this area, and its involvement in the UNSGM, are of paramount importance. Since 2014, experts from the OIE have participated in relevant training and are available for deployment to investigate any alleged use of a biological weapon anywhere in the world if the UNSGM were triggered.

La crédibilité et la légitimité du Mécanisme du Secrétaire général des Nations Unies visant à enquêter rapidement sur les allégations relatives à l'emploi possible d'armes biologiques reposent en partie sur le travail d'experts qualifiés et formés aux enquêtes d'établissement des faits, qui font appel à une méthode scientifique empirique. Comme cela a été constaté lors de l'enquête de 2013 concernant l'emploi allégué d'armes chimiques en République arabe syrienne, ce mécanisme peut constituer un outil efficace de vérification et de dissuasion en matière d'utilisation d'armes chimiques et biologiques. L'Organisation mondiale de la santé animale (OIE) a conclu un Mémorandum d'accord avec le Bureau des affaires de désarmement des Nations Unies, par lequel l'OIE s'engage à soutenir le Mécanisme du Secrétaire général et à mettre à disposition des experts pour participer aux missions. Les agents biologiques étant majoritairement d'origine animale, les compétences de l'OIE dans ce domaine et sa contribution au Mécanisme du Secrétaire général des Nations Unies sont d'une importance capitale. Depuis 2014, les experts de l'OIE ont participé aux formations requises ; en cas d'activation du mécanisme, ils sont donc opérationnels pour prendre part aux missions d'enquête sur l'emploi allégué d'armes biologiques partout dans le monde.

La credibilidad y legitimidad del Mecanismo del Secretario General de las Naciones Unidas para la Investigación del Presunto Empleo de Armas Químicas, Biológicas o Toxínicas reposa en parte en la participación de expertos cualificados y formados para llevar a cabo misiones de esclarecimiento de los hechos empleando métodos científicos experimentales. Como dejó patente la investigación sobre el presunto uso de armas químicas en la República Árabe Siria realizada en 2013, este mecanismo puede constituir una eficaz herramienta de verificación y un factor disuasorio del uso de armas químicas o biológicas. La Organización Mundial de Sanidad Animal (OIE) tiene suscrito con la Oficina de Asuntos de Desarme de las Naciones Unidas un memorando de entendimiento en virtud del cual presta apoyo al Mecanismo del Secretario General y proporciona expertos que figuran en la lista de especialistas llamados a participar en sus misiones. Toda vez que la mayoría de los agentes biológicos son de origen animal, la competencia técnica de la OIE en este ámbito, así como su participación en el Mecanismo, revisten una importancia capital. Desde 2014, expertos de la OIE han participado en actividades de formación sobre el tema y están disponibles para desplegarse en cualquier lugar del mundo e investigar todo caso de presunta utilización de un arma biológica en cuanto se active el Mecanismo del Secretario General.

The Biological Weapons Convention.

The Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) was the first international treaty to effectively prohibit an entire category of weapons of mass destruction. In its Preamble, the BWC clearly affirms the norm against the use of biology as a weapon by stating that such use would be 'repugnant to the conscience of mankind'. Few would dispute the strength of the norm against biological weapons, but the BWC itself, as the legal and widely accepted embodiment of this norm, requires continuous support and attention. Even after 40 years, it is not yet universal and its implementation is less than satisfactory. However, the treaty, and particularly the annual meetings of its States Parties in Geneva, have served as a venue in which all relevant stakeholders can come together to share information, experience and expertise and develop common understandings at the global level. In recent years, these meetings have been attended by a wide range of experts from national, regional and international entities from the public, private and civil sectors. International organisations such as the World Organisation for Animal Health, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the World Health Organization have been regular participants in the BWC meetings and their contributions are much appreciated by BWC States Parties. Cooperation and collaboration at the international level is also vital in facing the threats posed by the misuse of biological agents against humans, animals or plants. However, the recent Eighth BWC Review Conference was only able to find agreement on a small number of issues, which could put into question the role the BWC should play in countering biological threats in the future.

La Convention sur les armes biologiques (BWC) est le premier traité international à avoir interdit toute une catégorie d'armes de destruction massive. Dans le préambule de cette Convention, les États parties affirment clairement le principe de l'exclusion de la possibilité d'utiliser des agents biologiques en tant qu'armes, soulignant que la conscience de l'humanité réprouverait une telle utilisation. Si l'importance du principe d'exclusion des armes biologiques n'est guère contestée, la Convention elle-même, en tant que traduction juridique concrète et largement acceptée de ce principe nécessite une attention et un soutien continus. Quarante ans après sa signature, son application n'est toujours pas universelle et reste insatisfaisante. Toutefois, le traité et plus particulièrement les réunions des États parties à la Convention qui sont célébrées chaque année à Genève offrent à l'ensemble des parties concernées l'occasion d'échanger et de mettre en commun leurs informations, leur expérience et leur expertise afin de contribuer à une entente sur ces questions à l'échelle mondiale. Depuis quelques années, ces réunions ont accueilli de nombreux experts d'horizons variés, issus d'organismes nationaux, régionaux et internationaux des secteurs tant public que privé mais aussi de la société civile. Diverses organisations, dont l'Organisation mondiale de la santé animale, l'Organisation des Nations Unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture et l'Organisation mondiale de la santé participent régulièrement aux réunions de la Convention et leurs contributions sont fortement appréciées par les États parties à la Convention. La mise en place d'une coopération et d'une collaboration à l'échelle internationale est également essentielle pour faire face aux menaces posées par l'utilisation abusive d'agents biologiques contre les humains, les animaux ou les plantes. Néanmoins, lors de la huitième Conférence d'examen des États parties à la Convention qui s'est tenue récemment, ceux-ci n'ont pu s'accorder que sur un nombre limité de questions, ce qui pourrait remettre en cause le rôle déterminant de la Convention pour contrecarrer les menaces biologiques à l'avenir.

La Convención sobre las Armas Biológicas fue el primer tratado internacional por el que toda una categoría de armas de destrucción masiva quedó efectivamente prohibida. En su Preámbulo queda claramente fijado el principio según el cual todo uso de la biología como arma es algo que «repugna a la conciencia de la humanidad¼. Aunque pocos tendrían algo que objetar a la autoridad de un principio que condena el uso de armas biológicas, la Convención en sí misma, como materialización jurídica y ampliamente aceptada de tal principio, exige atención y apoyo permanentes. Aun después de 40 años, sigue sin revestir carácter universal, y su aplicación dista de ser satisfactoria. Pese a todo el tratado, y en especial las reuniones anuales que se celebran en Ginebra como parte de su aplicación, han servido de cauce para que todas las partes interesadas puedan reunirse, intercambiar información, experiencias y conocimientos técnicos y encontrar un terreno de entendimiento común a escala mundial. En los últimos años, a esas reuniones han acudido muy diversos expertos de entidades nacionales, regionales e internacionales de los sectores público y privado, así como de la sociedad civil. Organizaciones internacionales como la Organización Mundial de Sanidad Animal, la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura y la Organización Mundial de la Salud han participado regularmente en las reuniones de los Estados partes en la Convención, que han acogido muy positivamente sus aportaciones. La cooperación y la colaboración internacionales también son imprescindibles para hacer frente a la amenaza derivada del uso indebido de agentes biológicos contra personas, animales o plantas. En la Octava Conferencia de Examen de la Convención, sin embargo, que tuvo lugar en fechas recientes, solo hubo acuerdo en torno a muy contadas cuestiones, lo que podría poner en entredicho la función que la Convención debe cumplir en el futuro para conjurar las amenazas biológicas.