Classification of Motor Imagery Tasks Derived from Unilateral Upper Limb based on a Weight-optimized Learning Model.

BACKGROUND: The accuracy of decoding fine motor imagery (MI) tasks remains relatively low due to the dense distribution of active areas in the cerebral cortex. METHODS: To enhance the decoding of unilateral fine MI activity in the brain, a weight-optimized EEGNet model is introduced that recognizes six types of MI for the right upper limb, namely elbow flexion/extension, wrist pronation/supination and hand opening/grasping. The model is trained with augmented electroencephalography (EEG) data to learn deep features for MI classification. To address the sensitivity issue of the initial model weights to classification performance, a genetic algorithm (GA) is employed to determine the convolution kernel parameters for each layer of the EEGNet network, followed by optimization of the network weights through backpropagation. RESULTS: The algorithm's performance on the three joint classification is validated through experiment, achieving an average accuracy of 87.97%. The binary classification recognition rates for elbow joint, wrist joint, and hand joint are respectively 93.92%, 90.2%, and 94.64%. Thus, the product of the two-step accuracy value is obtained as the overall capability to distinguish the six types of MI, reaching an average accuracy of 81.74%. Compared to commonly used neural networks and traditional algorithms, the proposed method outperforms and significantly reduces the average error of different subjects. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, this algorithm effectively addresses the sensitivity of network parameters to initial weights, enhances algorithm robustness and improves the overall performance of MI task classification. Moreover, the method is applicable to other EEG classification tasks; for example, emotion and object recognition.

Establishment and validation of a nomogram model for predicting the specific mortality risk of melanoma in upper limbs based on the SEER database.

For patients with upper limb melanoma, the significance of specific death is more important than that of all-cause death, and traditional survival analysis may overestimate the mortality rate of patients. Therefore, the nomogram model for predicting the specific mortality risk of melanoma in the upper limbs was developed. A population with melanoma in the upper limbs, diagnosed from 2010 to 2015, were selected from the National Cancer Institute database of Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER). The independent predictive factors of specific death were confirmed by the competing risk model of one-factor analysis and multi-factor analysis, and the nomogram was constructed according to the independent predictive factors. 17,200 patients with upper limb melanoma were enrolled in the study (training cohort: n = 12,040; validation cohort: n = 5160). Multi-factor analysis of the competing risk model showed that age, marital status, gender, tumor stage, T stage, M stage, regional lymph node surgery information, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, mitotic cell count, ulcer and whether there were multiple primary cancers, were independent factors affecting the specific death of upper limb melanoma patients (P < 0.05). The nomogram has good predictive ability regarding the specific mortality risk of melanoma in the upper limbs, and could be of great help to formulate prognostic treatment strategies and follow-up strategies that are conducive to survival.

Adaptive Expectation-Maximization-Based Kalman Filter/Finite Impulse Response Filter for MEMS-INS-Based Posture Capture of Human Upper Limbs.

To obtain precise positional information, in this study, we propose an adaptive expectation-maximization (EM)-based Kalman filter (KF)/finite impulse response (FIR) integrated filter for inertial navigation system (INS)-based posture capture of human upper limbs. Initially, a data fusion model for wrist and elbow position is developed. Subsequently, the Mahalanobis distance is utilized to evaluate the performance of the filter. The integrated filter employs the EM-based KF to enhance noise estimation accuracy when the performance of KF declines. Conversely, upon deterioration in the performance of the EM-based KF, which is evaluated using the Mahalanobis distance, the FIR filter is employed to maintain the effectiveness of the data fusion filter. This research utilizes the proposed EM-based KF/FIR integrated filter to ascertain wrist and elbow positions. The empirical results demonstrate the proficiency of the proposed approach in estimating these positions, thereby overcoming the challenge and highlighting its inherent effectiveness.

Effectiveness of Extracorporeal Shock Wave Therapy in Treatment of Spasticity of Different Aetiologies: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Background: Spasticity is a motor disorder characterised by exaggerated movements of the tendons and accompanied by hyperreflexia and hypertonia. Extracorporeal shock wave therapy (ESWT) is used as a treatment for spasticity, although more evidence is needed on the effectiveness of this therapy in the treatment of spasticity. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness ESWT in the treatment of upper and lower limbs spasticity in both children and adults through different aetiologies. Methods: A systematic search was performed in different databases from inception to December 2023. Random-effects meta-analysis was used to estimate the efficacy of ESWT on spasticity using the Modified Ashworth Scale. Results: Sixteen studies were included in the systematic review and meta-analysis. The effect of ESWT on spasticity measured with the Modified Ashworth Scale shows a significant decrease in spasticity in the upper limbs and in the lower limbs in adults with chronic stroke and in children with cerebral palsy, is more effective immediately after application, and maintains its effect up to 12 weeks post treatment. Conclusions: These findings are important for clinical practice since they show evidence that ESWT is effective in reducing spasticity in both children and adults.

Cervical dorsal rhizotomy for upper limbs spasticity. Case report.

Spasticity is a prevalent symptom of upper motor neuron syndrome, becoming debilitating when hindering voluntary movement and motor function and causing contractures and pain. Functional neurosurgery plays a crucial role in treating severe spasticity. Despite extensive literature on SDR for lower limb spasticity, there is a scarcity of papers regarding the procedure in the cervical region to alleviate upper limb spasticity. This case report details a cervical dorsal rhizotomy (CDR) performed for upper limb spasticity, resulting in significant improvement in spasticity with sustained outcomes and low complication rates. Neuroablative procedures like CDR become an option to treat spasticity.

An Approach to Using Electrical Impedance Myography Signal Sensors to Assess Morphofunctional Changes in Tissue during Muscle Contraction.

This present work is aimed at conducting fundamental and exploratory studies of the mechanisms of electrical impedance signal formation. This paper also considers morphofunctional changes in forearm tissues during the performance of basic hand actions. For this purpose, the existing research benches were modernized to conduct experiments of mapping forearm muscle activity by electrode systems on the basis of complexing the electrical impedance signals and electromyography signals and recording electrode systems' pressing force using force transducers. Studies were carried out with the involvement of healthy volunteers in the implementation of vertical movement of the electrode system and ultrasound transducer when the subject's upper limb was positioned in the bed of the stand while performing basic hand actions in order to identify the relationship between the morphofunctional activity of the upper limb muscles and the recorded parameters of the electro-impedance myography signal. On the basis of the results of the studies, including complex measurements of neuromuscular activity on healthy volunteers such as the signals of electro-impedance myography and pressing force, analyses of the morphofunctional changes in tissues during action performance on the basis of ultrasound and MRI studies and the factors influencing the recorded signals of electro-impedance myography are described. The results are of fundamental importance and will enable reproducible electro-impedance myography signals, which, in turn, allow improved anthropomorphic control.

Semi-Immersive Virtual Reality Exercise Therapy for Upper Limb Rehabilitation in Patients With Spinal Cord Injury Using the Leap Motion Controller.

In this article, we present a case study involving a patient with spinal cord injury (SCI), resulting in tetraplegia and subsequent loss of upper limb function. The subject of our study was a 23-year-old woman with incomplete tetraplegia stemming from a cervical spinal cord injury. Our primary objective was to enhance hand function and grip strength. Throughout the intervention, we observed substantial enhancements in hand function, range of motion, and muscle power. Notably, the patient exhibited a favorable response to the therapy, demonstrating commendable adherence and active participation. To create an optimal training environment tailored to the patient's needs, we employed the Unity 3D game engine in conjunction with a Leap Motion controller sensor. This combination facilitated the development of a semi-immersive virtual training environment. The utilization of this technology aimed to simulate a conducive training atmosphere for the rehabilitation of hand function. Based on our study outcomes, we advocate for the incorporation of leap motion-related exercises in the treatment of hand functional loss and weakness. The promising results observed in this case study prompt the recommendation for further large-scale studies to validate and substantiate our findings. Such investigations would contribute to the establishment of evidence-based practices and enhance the understanding of the efficacy of Leap Motion technology in addressing upper limb impairments associated with spinal cord injuries.

Detecting Asymmetry of Upper Limb Activity with Accelerometry in Infants at Risk for Unilateral Spastic Cerebral Palsy.

AIMS: To examine whether accelerometry can quantitate asymmetry of upper limb activity in infants aged 3-12 months at risk for developing unilateral spastic cerebral palsy (USCP). METHOD: A prospective study was performed in 50 infants with unilateral perinatal brain injury at high risk of developing USCP. Triaxial accelerometers were worn on the ipsilateral and contralesional upper limb during the Hand Assessment for Infants (HAI). Infants were grouped in three age intervals (3-5 months, 5-7.5 months and 7.5 until 12 months). Each age interval group was divided in a group with and without asymmetrical hand function based on HAI cutoff values suggestive of USCP. RESULTS: In a total of 82 assessments, the asymmetry index for mean upper limb activity was higher in infants with asymmetrical hand function compared to infants with symmetrical hand function in all three age groups (ranging from 41 to 51% versus - 2-6%, p < 0.01), while the total activity of both upper limbs did not differ. CONCLUSIONS: Upper limb accelerometry can identify asymmetrical hand function in the upper limbs in infants with unilateral perinatal brain injury from 3 months onwards and is complementary to the Hand Assessment for Infants.

Bilateral Transfer of a Visuomotor Task in Different Workspace Configurations.

Bilateral transfer occurs when a learned behavior transfers from one (group of) effectors(s) to another. Researchers investigating bilateral transfer of a visuomotor adaptation task between limbs used across workspaces have observed divergent results. This study assessed whether bilateral transfer of a visuomotor adaptation task changes with workspace configuration manipulation. Ninety-six right-handed young adults were assigned to one of three workspace locations, i.e., ipsilateral, contralateral, and central. Within each workspace were two retention groups (RRR/LLL) and two bilateral transfer groups (RLR/LRL). Performance before and after training was collected to determine direct and after-effects. We observed an asymmetric transfer of pathlength (left to right) but no ensuing after-effect. However, the transfer of movement time and normalized jerk was symmetric in the contralateral workspace. These findings showed differences in the pattern of bilateral transfer asymmetry in the different workspace configurations, which was parameter specific.

Age-related change in muscle strength, muscle mass, and fat mass between the dominant and non-dominant upper limbs.

Background: Any form of physical activity is recommended for the older adults to maintain their physical function; however, the effect of daily activities on muscle function still needs to be investigated. Humans always use one dominant hand to perform tasks, providing a natural situation for research on the effect of daily activities on muscle function. Methods: Five hundred and twenty-six healthy adults were recruited from the community in Beijing. Muscle strength was assessed using a handgrip dynamometer, lean mass, fat mass, bone area and bone mineral content of upper limbs were assessed using dual-energy X ray-absorptiometry. The results were compared between the dominant and non-dominant upper limbs. Results: The dominant upper limb had better muscle strength, lean mass, bone area and bone mineral content than the non-dominant side. The difference in muscle strength and lean mass between the two upper limbs decreased with the advanced age. In older age, fat mass of upper limbs increased in men, but not in women. Conclusion: Daily activities can maintain better muscle function in the dominant upper limb than in the non-dominant side; however, the delaying effect on age-related decline in muscle function was limited.

The Influence of Morphological Characteristics on the Ball Throwing Velocity in the Professional Handball Players / Influencia de las Características Morfológicas en la Velocidad de Lanzamiento del Balón en los Jugadores Profesionales de Balonmano

SUMMARY: The aim of this study was to determine influence of upper limbs on the ball throwing velocity. A total of 10 professional handball players (25.74±4.84 years) participated in this study. All of them were playing in the top Montenegrin professional handball league. The results obtained in this study shows that upper limbs have high influence on ball throwing velocity. This study provides normative data and performance standards for professional handball. Coaches can use this information to determine the type of anthropometric characteristics that are needed for handball. Anthropometric parameters such as arm length, wrist diameter, hand length and arm span are the most relevant aspects related to ball throwing speed, given that these parameters cannot be changed through training, they should be taken into account when discovering talents.

El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar la influencia de los miembros superiores sobre la velocidad de lanzamiento de la pelota. En el estudio participaron un total de 10 jugadores profesionales de balonmano (25,74±4,84 años). Todos ellos jugaban en la principal liga profesional de balonmano de Montenegro. Los resultados obtenidos mostraron que los miembros superiores tienen una alta influencia en la velocidad de lanzamiento de la pelota. Este estudio proporciona datos normativos y estándares de rendimiento para el balonmano profesional. Los entrenadores pueden utilizar esta información para determinar el tipo de características antropométricas necesarias para el balonmano. Los parámetros antropométricos como la longitud del brazo, el diámetro de la muñeca, la longitud de la mano y la envergadura del brazo son los aspectos más relevantes relacionados con la velocidad de lanzamiento de la pelota, dado que estos parámetros no se pueden cambiar mediante el entrenamiento, deben tenerse en consideración a la hora de descubrir talentos.

Relationship between scapular elevation exercises with different alignments and activity of the trapezius and levator scapulae muscles.

[Purpose] This study aimed to examine whether scapular elevation exercises in sitting positions with different alignments lead to contractions of the trapezius and levator scapulae muscles. [Participants and Methods] The participants were 25 males, measured in four sitting positions with different alignments. Spine alignment was assessed by measuring the head protrusion, upper thoracic spine tilt, and pelvic tilt angles. Upper limb alignment was evaluated using the scapula tilt angle, scapula rotation angle, and distance between scapular spinous processes. Scapular elevation exercises were measured, and the thickness of the trapezius and levator scapulae muscles were measured in resting and elevated positions, with changes in muscle thickness. [Results] The trapezius muscle thickness was greater in the sitting position with less thoracic spine tilt and scapula tilt angles. Conversely, the levator scapulae muscle thickness was greater in the sitting position with more thoracic spine tilt and scapula tilt angles. [Conclusion] Scapular elevation exercises induce separate contractions of the trapezius and levator scapulae muscles by modifying the alignment of the spine and upper limbs.

Assessment of an IMU-Based Experimental Set-Up for Upper Limb Motion in Obese Subjects.

In recent years, wearable systems based on inertial sensors opened new perspectives for functional motor assessment with respect to the gold standard motion capture systems. The aim of this study was to validate an experimental set-up based on 17 body-worn inertial sensors (Awinda, Xsens, The Netherlands), addressing specific body segments with respect to the state-of-the art system (VICON, Oxford Metrics Ltd., Oxford, UK) to assess upper limb kinematics in obese, with respect to healthy subjects. Twenty-three obese and thirty healthy weight individuals were simultaneously acquainted with the two systems across a set of three tasks for upper limbs (i.e., frontal arm rise, lateral arm rise, and reaching). Root Mean Square error (RMSE) was computed to quantify the differences between the measurements provided by the systems in terms of range of motion (ROM), whilst their agreement was assessed via Pearson's correlation coefficient (PCC) and Bland-Altman (BA) plots. In addition, the signal waveforms were compared via one-dimensional statistical parametrical mapping (SPM) based on a paired t-test and a two-way ANOVA was applied on ROMs. The overall results partially confirmed the correlation and the agreement between the two systems, reporting only a moderate correlation for shoulder principal rotation angle in each task (r~0.40) and for elbow/flexion extension in obese subjects (r = 0.66), whilst no correlation was found for most non-principal rotation angles (r < 0.40). Across the performed tasks, an average RMSE of 34° and 26° was reported in obese and healthy controls, respectively. At the current state, the presence of bias limits the applicability of the inertial-based system in clinics; further research is intended in this context.

Effects of free versus restricted arm movements on postural control in normal and modified sensory conditions in young and older adults.

The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of arm movements on postural control when standing under different sensory conditions in healthy young and older adults. Fifteen young (mean ± SD age; 21.3 ± 4.2 years) and 15 older (mean ± SD age; 73.3 ± 5.0 years) adults completed the modified Romberg test, which uses four task manipulations (i.e. eyes open and eyes closed on a firm and foam surface) to compromise the fidelity of sensory feedback mechanisms. Each participant completed the tasks under two arm movement conditions: restricted and free arm movements. Centre of pressure (COP) range and frequency were calculated to characterise postural performance and strategy, respectively. Older adults showed greater COP range with restricted compared to free arm movements during all modified sensory conditions, with these effects most prominent in the medio-lateral (ML) plane (all p < .05, Cohen's d = 0.69-1.61). Compared to the free arm movement condition, there was an increase in ML displacement and frequency when arm movements were restricted during only the most challenging (i.e. vestibular dominant) task in young adults (all p < .05, d = 0.645-0.83). Finally, main age effects for the arm restriction cost (p < .05) indicates a greater reliance on an upper body strategy in older compared to young adults, independent of sensory availability/accuracy. These findings indicate that older adults compensate for the loss of accuracy in sensory input by increasing reliance on upper body movement strategies.

An Overview of the Body Schema and Body Image: Theoretical Models, Methodological Settings and Pitfalls for Rehabilitation of Persons with Neurological Disorders.

Given the widespread debate on the definition of the terms "Body Schema" and "Body Image", this article presents a broad overview of the studies that have investigated the nature of these types of body representations, especially focusing on the innovative information about these two representations that could be useful for the rehabilitation of patients with different neurological disorders with motor deficits (especially those affecting the upper limbs). In particular, we analyzed (i) the different definitions and explicative models proposed, (ii) the empirical settings used to test them and (iii) the clinical and rehabilitative implications derived from the application of interventions on specific case reports. The growing number of neurological diseases with motor impairment in the general population has required the development of new rehabilitation techniques and a new phenomenological paradigm placing body schema as fundamental and intrinsic parts for action in space. In this narrative review, the focus was placed on evidence from the application of innovative rehabilitation techniques and case reports involving the upper limbs, as body parts particularly involved in finalistic voluntary actions in everyday life, discussing body representations and their functional role.

Therapeutic intervention with virtual reality in patients with Parkinson's disease for upper limb motor training: A systematic review / Intervención terapéutica con realidad virtual en pacientes con enfermedad de Parkinson para entrenamiento motor del miembro superior: revisión sistemática

To analyze the scientific evidence regarding changes in upper extremities in patients with Parkinson's disease who use virtual reality as part of their neurological rehabilitation treatment. The search was carried out in the following databases: MEDLINE, Cochrane Library, PEDROs and SCOPUS. The following inclusion criteria were applied to a total of 106 articles: Randomized clinical trials with an age of 5 years, the sample had to be of patients with PD (regardless of their state of involvement) and who had performed RV in the treatment of limbs superiors. A total of n=7 articles were used, in which the variables corresponding to upper limb motor control were measured, such as: fine motor dexterity, gross motor dexterity, strength, tremor, functionality and speed. Virtual Reality as tool in neurorehabilitation in patients with Parkinson's disease shows positive effects in all measurements related to upper limb motor control.(AU)

Analizar la evidencia científica relativa a los cambios en las extremidades superiores en pacientes con enfermedad de Parkinson que utilizan realidad virtual como parte de su tratamiento de rehabilitación neurológica. La búsqueda se realizó en las bases de datos siguientes: MEDLINE, Cochrane Library, PEDROs y SCOPUS. Se aplicaron los siguientes criterios de inclusión a un total de 106 artículos: ensayos clínicos aleatorizados con edad de 5 años, muestra que incluyera pacientes con EP (independientemente de su estado de compromiso), y que hubieran realizado RV para el tratamiento de los miembros superiores. Se utilizó un total de n=7 artículos, en los que se midieron las variables correspondientes al control motor de los miembros superiores, tales como: destreza motora fina, destreza motora bruta, fuerza, temblor, funcionalidad y velocidad. La realidad virtual como herramienta de neurorehabilitación en los pacientes con enfermedad de Parkinson muestra efectos positivos en todas las medidas relacionadas con el control motor de las extremidades superiores.(AU)

Effects of elastic kinesiology taping on shoulder proprioception: a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Shoulder injuries are associated with proprioceptive deficits. Elastic kinesiology tape (KT) is used for treating musculoskeletal disorders, including shoulder injuries, as it arguably improves proprioception. OBJECTIVE: To synthesize the evidence on the effects of elastic KT on proprioception in healthy and pathological shoulders. METHODS: Four databases (PubMed, WoS, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus) were searched for studies that investigated the effects of elastic KT on shoulder proprioception. Outcome measures were active joint position sense (AJPS), passive joint position sense (PJPS), kinesthesia, sense of force (SoF), and sense of velocity (SoV). Risk of bias (RoB) was assessed using the Cochrane Collaboration RoB tool for randomized controlled trials (RCTs), and the ROBINS-1 for non-RCTs, while the certainty of evidence was determined using GRADE. RESULTS: Eight studies (5 RCTs, 3 non-RCTs) were included, yielding 187 shoulders (102 healthy and 85 pathological shoulders). RoB ranged from low (2 studies), moderate (5 studies), to high (1 study). Elastic KT has a mixed effect on AJPS of healthy shoulders (n=79) (low certainty). Elastic KT improves AJPS (subacromial pain syndrome and rotator cuff tendinopathy, n=52) and PJPS (chronic hemiparetic shoulders, n=13) among pathological shoulders (very low certainty). Elastic KT has no effect on kinesthesia among individuals with subacromial pain syndrome (n=30) (very low certainty). CONCLUSION: There is very low to low certainty of evidence that elastic KT enhances shoulder AJPS and PJPS. The aggregate of evidence is currently so low that any recommendation on the effectiveness of elastic KT on shoulder proprioception remains speculative.

The effects of upper limb exercise training on upper limb muscle strength in people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.

BACKGROUND: Upper limb (UL) muscle dysfunction is a common extrapulmonary manifestation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). UL muscle dysfunction is associated with muscle weakness, dyspnea, and exercise intolerance. Although upper limb exercise training (ULET) is typically incorporated in pulmonary rehabilitation programs, its effects on UL muscle strength remains unclear. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this systematic review was to investigate the effectiveness of ULET, in UL muscle strength of people with COPD. DESIGN: This is systematic review and meta-analysis study. DATA SOURCES AND METHODS: Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) Protocols 2020 guidelines were used for this study. PubMed, Cochrane, CINAHL Plus and SPORTDiscus and clinicaltrials.gov registry were searched from inception to July 2022. Included studies were randomized controlled trials, assessing the effectiveness in muscle strength of ULET, compared with other types of upper or lower limb exercise or no exercise. The quality and risk of bias were assessed using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale and certainty of evidence with the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluations approach. Treatment effects of ULET were calculated using standardized mean differences and 95% confidence intervals. RESULTS: Twenty-four studies, with a total sample of 882 patients, were included. Most studies were of moderate quality and high risk of bias. Very low to low certainty evidence indicates a significant difference in UL muscle strength in favor of resistance ULET, compared with lower limb exercise alone or no exercise. No significant differences were found in different types of ULET comparisons. CONCLUSION: The results of this review showed that resistance ULET could improve UL muscle strength in people with COPD. Most studies, however, were of moderate quality and high risk of bias. Further studies with larger sample sizes, better methodological quality, and standardized training protocols are needed to confirm these findings.

Upper limb cranking asymmetry during a Wingate anaerobic test in wheelchair basketball players.

INTRODUCTION: Interlimb asymmetry of strength and/or motor coordination could limit the performance of wheelchair athletes or increase their risk of injury. Studies of interlimb asymmetry in the lower limbs have shown high between-subject variability that does not depend on the side of dominance and that does not change with fatigue. Upper limb asymmetry is particularly large in manual wheelchair athletes with a lower degree of impairment. The aim of this study was to evaluate interlimb asymmetry of forces developed during an upper limb Wingate anaerobic test, the effects of fatigue on force, and differences between high- and low-point players. METHOD: Twenty-five wheelchair basketball players (13 females and 12 males) of male and female national French teams performed a 30s anaerobic Wingate test on an arm ergometer. Participants were classified into two functional categories, high-point (classed from 3 to 4.5) and low-point (classed from 1 to 2.5), according to the International Wheelchair Basketball Federation classification. Left and right arm forces were measured during the pushing and pulling phases at peak power, 10s, and the end of the 30s test. RESULTS: Upper limb asymmetry changed with fatigue during each phase. Force asymmetry differed between peak power, 10s and 30s, with no consistent increase or decrease. Asymmetry did not differ significantly between low- and high-point players but tended to be greater in high-point players. Asymmetry tended to be greater in the females, with significant differences between the males and females in the push phase. CONCLUSION: Inter-subject variability was high, but forces were asymmetric for most participants, especially females. The Wingate anaerobic test could highlight problematic asymmetries that might impact daily life or sports performance.

Golf-related sports injuries of the musculoskeletal system.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the characteristics of golf-related musculoskeletal injuries. Golfers were retrospectively surveyed through a 50-item questionnaire. Golfers were divided into injured and noninjured groups according to the presence or absence of musculoskeletal injuries. Of the 208 respondents, 64.0% suffered golf-related injuries, most of which were minor injuries caused by overuse in the early 9.9 weeks. According to the anatomical distribution, the most injured parts were upper limbs, spine, trunk, and lower limbs in that order. As for the distribution by part, the hand and wrist were the most vulnerable, and the lateral elbow damage was 3 times more common than the inner elbow. Self-management for injuries was the most common treatment, and regular preventive exercise accounted for 30% of the injured. Overall, more than half of the respondents suffered from musculoskeletal injuries, self-management was the most common, and less than one-third did regular exercise to prevent injuries. Therefore, active management to prevent golf-related musculoskeletal injuries may be necessary.