The Analysis of Whose Verbal Behavior?

Recent reviews of behavior analytic journals suggest that participant demographics are inadequately described. These reviews have been limited to brief periods across several journals, emphasized specific variables (e.g., socioeconomic status), or only included specific populations. The current scoping review included all published articles in The Analysis of Verbal Behavior from 1982-2020. Six demographic variables were coded for 1888 participants across 226 articles. Despite small sample sizes (i.e., fewer than six participants in 62.3% of studies), only age (85.4%) and gender identity (71.6%) were reported for the majority of participants. Socioeconomic status, race/ethnicity, and primary language were reported for fewer than 20% of participants. Over time, the number of demographic variables reported showed a slight increasing trend, although considerable variability was observed across years. These findings suggest that editors and reviewers must consider what constitutes acceptable participant characterization. Researchers might also be emboldened to extend their work to populations currently underrepresented in the journal.

The Use of Multiple Exemplar Instruction to Induce Emergent Listener Discriminations and Emergent Intraverbal Vocal Responses in Autistic Children.

This study tested for the emergence of listener discriminations and intraverbal vocal responses following tact training with four autistic children. All participants were trained to tact the name and the favorite food of two contrived cartoon monsters in the presence of a picture of the monster (e.g., "What is the name of this monster?" - "Max" and "What food does the monster eat?" - "Sweets") to evaluate the effects of emergent listener discriminations and emergent intraverbal vocal responses. Once criterion was met on the tact training, participants were tested for emergent listener discriminations (e.g., "Who eats sweets?" And "Who is Max?") and emergent intraverbal vocal responses (e.g., "What food does Max eat?" - "Sweets" and "Who eats sweets?" - "Max" in the absence of the picture). After training, all four participants engaged in emergent listener responding but only one participant engaged in emergent intraverbal responding. Multiple exemplar instruction (MEI) was used to teach those who could not engage in emergent intraverbal responding, and it was demonstrated to be effective. These findings are educationally significant because efficiency of instruction is important to maximize instructional impact, and to reduce the time and resource-intensive nature of behavior-analytic programming.

Procedural Fidelity Reporting in The Analysis of Verbal Behavior from 2007-2021.

Procedural fidelity refers to the degree to which procedures for an assessment or intervention (i.e., independent variables) are implemented consistent with the prescribed protocols. Procedural fidelity is an important factor in demonstrating the internal validity of an experiment and clinical treatments. Previous reviews evaluating the inclusion of procedural fidelity in published empirical articles demonstrated underreporting of procedural fidelity procedures and measures within specific journals. We conducted a systematic review of The Analysis of Verbal Behavior (TAVB) to evaluate the trends in procedural fidelity reporting from 2007 to 2021. Of the 253 articles published in TAVB during the reporting period, 144 of the articles (168 studies) met inclusionary criteria for further analysis. Our results showed that 54% of studies reported procedural fidelity data, which is slightly higher than previous reviews. In comparison, interobserver-agreement data were reported for a high percentage of studies reviewed (i.e., 93%). Further discussion of results and applied research implications are included.

Case report: Applied behavior analysis in a case of anomic aphasia in post-acute myocardial infarction with cardiac arrest and brain hypoxia: results of tact-training.

Purpose: Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) tact-training was provided to an adult with post-stroke anomic aphasia, with the main purposes to improve naming of pictures, with a possible generalization to another different setting, through telehealth sessions. Method: The Multiple probe experimental design across behaviors was used. Two sets of stimuli were used (SET 1 and SET 2), including 60 laminated photos, belonging to three different categories for each set. Procedure included the baseline, the intervention phases (face-to-face and telehealth sessions), and the follow-up (1 month after the end of a tact training). Results: For both, SET 1 and SET 2, the mastery criterion (80% correct stimulus tacts, for three consecutive times, simultaneously for all categories) was achieved. No increased percentage of correct picture tacts was found for untrained items. At follow-up, the patient provided 70 to 100% correct responses. For both SET 1 and SET 2, telehealth did not modify the correct response trends. Conclusion: The results of our study seem to suggest that specific tact-training procedures might be successfully carried out in adult and elderly people with post-stroke aphasia. It also appears necessary to arrange protocols providing telehealth sessions, with benefits for both families and the health system.

The Effects of an Accelerated Auditory Matching Protocol for Early Intervention Students.

We employed a multiple probe design to test the effects of an accelerated auditory matching protocol with five toddlers receiving early intervention services (four males, one female) for developmental delays. All participants emitted poorly articulated vocal mands and tacts. The dependent variables were the number of full echoics, partial echoics, and incorrect responses within a set of 20 two-syllable words. The independent variable was an accelerated Auditory Matching Protocol that targets auditory discrimination using an iPad App. Each phase of the protocol targets different sound discriminations with growing complexity. Four out of five participants emitted more full or partial echoic responses upon mastery of the Auditory Matching Protocol. Moreover, compared to those who received the full dosage of the standard Auditory Matching Protocol in previous studies, the participants in this study required fewer learn units to master all phases and to demonstrate improvement. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40617-023-00882-1.

Lexicon-Based Sentiment Analysis in Behavioral Research.

A complete science of human behavior requires a comprehensive account of the verbal behavior those humans exhibit. Existing behavioral theories of such verbal behavior have produced compelling insight into language's underlying function, but the expansive program of research those theories deserve has unfortunately been slow to develop. We argue that the status quo's manually implemented and study-specific coding systems are too resource intensive to be worthwhile for most behavior analysts. These high input costs in turn discourage research on verbal behavior overall. We propose lexicon-based sentiment analysis as a more modern and efficient approach to the study of human verbal products, especially naturally occurring ones (e.g., psychotherapy transcripts, social media posts). In the present discussion, we introduce the reader to principles of sentiment analysis, highlighting its usefulness as a behavior analytic tool for the study of verbal behavior. We conclude with an outline of approaches for handling some of the more complex forms of speech, like negation, sarcasm, and speculation. The appendix also provides a worked example of how sentiment analysis could be applied to existing questions in behavior analysis, complete with code that readers can incorporate into their own work.

The Effects of Applied Behavior Analysis on Verbal Behavior With Autistic Individuals Using the Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program (VBMAPP) and the Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills (ABLLS).

Introduction  Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is a fundamental practice-based intervention for treating autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Few studies have directly measured and evaluated the effects of ABA on verbal behaviors, mainly using the Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program (VBMAPP) and the Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills (ABLLS) as outcome measures. This study aims to fill this gap by examining the relationship between ABA interventions and the enhancement of verbal skills, as measured by the VBMAPP and the ABLLS, in a convenience sample of individuals with ASD.  Materials and methods At The Oxford Centers (TOCs) in Brighton and Troy, Michigan, USA, 33 individuals with autism received treatment from January 2018 to July 2021, spanning 43 months. A pretest-posttest design was employed to retrospectively examine any impacts between ABA interventions and alterations in verbal scores among individuals with ASD. Depending on developmental age, all subjects underwent two verbal assessments with a six-month interval in-between. Twelve children were administered the VBMAPP, while 21 were given the ABLLS. Results Paired t-tests for pretest and posttest VBMAPP subscales resulted in statistically significant effects (p<0.05) for (VBMAPP - Mand), (VBMAPP - Tact), (VBMAPP - Listener Responding), (VBMAPP - Visual Perceptual Skills and Matching-to-Sample), (VBMAPP -Independent Play), (VBMAPP - Social Play), (VBMAPP - Motor Imitation), (VBMAPP - Spontaneous Vocalization), (VBMAPP - Intraverbal), (VBMAPP - Group Behavior), and (VBMAPP - Linguistic Structure). As measured by Cohen's d, effect sizes were moderate to mostly high (-0.623 to -1.688). There were non-significant results (p>0.05) for (VBMAPP - Listener Responding by Feature, Function, and Class) and (VBMAPP - Echoic). Paired t-tests for pretest and posttest ABLLS subscales resulted in statistically significant effects (p<.05) for all ABLLS scales: (ABLLS - Receptive Language), (ABLLS - Requests), (ABLLS - Labeling), (ABLLS - Intraverbals), (ABLLS - Spontaneous Vocalizations), (ABLLS - Syntax Grammar), (ABLLS - Social Interactions), and (ABLLS - Generalized Responding). As measured by Cohen's d, effect sizes were moderate to mostly high (-0.656 to -1.372). Conclusions  The administration of ABA treatments had a noteworthy influence, with statistically significant impacts on improving verbal behaviors on 11 of the 13 VBMAPP scales and all of the ABLLS scales. As measured by Cohen's d, effect sizes were moderate to high for both scales. These findings underscore the importance and effectiveness of ABA interventions in enhancing verbal skills in children with ASD. However, it's crucial to note that further confirmatory studies are required to verify the reliability of these original findings, emphasizing the ongoing need for research in this field.

Análise comparativa do comportamento verbal nos três níveis de suporte do autismo / Comparative analysis of verbal behavior in the three levels of autism support / Análisis comparativo de la conducta verbal en los tres niveles de apoyo al autismo

OBJETIVO: O presente trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar e comparar a habilidade do comportamento verbal em crianças com distintos níveis de suporte do TEA. MÉTODO: Foram avaliadas onze crianças diagnosticadas com autismo e com faixa etária entre 2 e 7 anos e que apresentassem diversidade entre si quanto ao nível de suporte TEA. Para a averiguação do repertório de comunicação, eles foram avaliados a partir de um instrumento elaborado por uma equipe de profissionais especializados, investigando o comportamento não verbal, ecoico, mando, tato e intraverbal em três tentativas. RESULTADOS: Apesar do número reduzido de participantes, os resultados indicaram que pacientes no nível 3 de suporte apresentam maior comprometimento na comunicação comparado aos demais. O estudo destacou a importância do rastreio de habilidades comportamentais para um planejamento com maior eficácia para a intervenção e concomitantemente evolução clínica, respeitando assim as particularidades e singularidades de cada pessoa no espectro. CONCLUSÃO: Concluiu-se assim, a importância da análise de comportamentos e a investigação detalhada para cada paciente, a fim de que as intervenções sejam focadas em suas reais necessidades.

OBJECTIVE: The present work aimed to evaluate and compare the verbal behavior ability in children with different levels of ASD support. METHOD: Eleven children diagnosed with autism and aged between 2 and 7 years old and who presented diversity among themselves in terms of the level of ASD support were evaluated. To investigate their communication repertoire, they were evaluated using an instrument developed by a team of specialized professionals, investigating non-verbal, echoic, command, tact and intraverbal behavior in three attempts. RESULTS: Despite the small number of participants, the results indicated that patients at level 3 of support have greater impairment in communication compared to the others. The study highlighted the importance of screening behavioral skills for more effective planning for intervention and concomitant clinical evolution, thus respecting the particularities and singularities of each person on the spectrum. CONCLUSION: This concludes the importance of behavioral analysis and detailed investigation for each patient, so that interventions are focused on their real needs.

OBJETIVO: El presente trabajo tuvo como objetivo evaluar y comparar la capacidad de conducta verbal en niños con diferentes niveles de apoyo al TEA. MÉTODO: Se evaluaron once niños diagnosticados con autismo, con edades entre 2 y 7 años y que presentaban diversidad entre sí en cuanto al nivel de apoyo al TEA. Para investigar su repertorio comunicativo, fueron evaluados mediante un instrumento desarrollado por un equipo de profesionales especializados, investigando el comportamiento no verbal, ecoico, de mando, tacto e intraverbal en tres intentos. RESULTADOS: A pesar del pequeño número de participantes, los resultados indicaron que los pacientes en el nivel 3 de apoyo tienen un mayor deterioro en la comunicación en comparación con los demás. El estudio destacó la importancia del cribado de habilidades conductuales para una planificación más eficaz de la intervención y la evolución clínica concomitante, respetando así las particularidades y singularidades de cada persona del espectro. CONCLUSIÓN: Se concluye la importancia del análisis conductual y la investigación detallada de cada paciente, para que las intervenciones estén enfocadas a sus necesidades reales.

Analyses of relational coherence and rule following: Consistent liars are preferred over occasional truth tellers.

The current study explored the influence of different levels of speaker coherence on rule following and speaker preference. In Experiment 1, rules provided by three different speakers were either 100% accurate, 0% accurate, or 50% accurate/inaccurate. Experiment 2 was similar to Experiment 1 except that the speaker's coherence was adjusted to 80% accurate, 20% accurate, and 50% accurate/inaccurate, respectively. Overall, participants tended to follow coherent speaker rules and avoid following incoherent speaker rules during training and testing phases. The results also indicated that following and not following rules provided by speakers may be generalizable to novel stimuli and maintained in the absence of differential reinforcement (i.e., in experimental test phases). Additionally, in a preference test, participants tended to prefer coherent over incoherent and partially coherent speakers. Furthermore, participants tended to prefer the relatively more incoherent speaker (i.e., 0% or 20% accurate) over the 50% accurate coherent speaker in both experiments. Finally, a comparison of the results of both experiments indicated that different levels of relational coherence affected the variability of rule-following and speaker preference behaviors. These findings are discussed in the context of the complexities that appear to be involved in rule-following behaviors and speaker preference.

High frequency post-pause word choices and task-dependent speech behavior characterize connected speech in individuals with mild cognitive impairment.

Background: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by progressive cognitive decline, including impairments in speech production and fluency. Mild cognitive impairment (MCI), a prodrome of AD, has also been linked with changes in speech behavior but to a more subtle degree. Objective: This study aimed to investigate whether speech behavior immediately following both filled and unfilled pauses (post-pause speech behavior) differs between individuals with MCI and healthy controls (HCs), and how these differences are influenced by the cognitive demands of various speech tasks. Methods: Transcribed speech samples were analyzed from both groups across different tasks, including immediate and delayed narrative recall, picture descriptions, and free responses. Key metrics including lexical and syntactic complexity, lexical frequency and diversity, and part of speech usage, both overall and post-pause, were examined. Results: Significant differences in pause usage were observed between groups, with a higher incidence and longer latencies following these pauses in the MCI group. Lexical frequency following filled pauses was higher among MCI participants in the free response task but not in other tasks, potentially due to the relative cognitive load of the tasks. The immediate recall task was most useful at differentiating between groups. Predictive analyses utilizing random forest classifiers demonstrated high specificity in using speech behavior metrics to differentiate between MCI and HCs. Conclusions: Speech behavior following pauses differs between MCI participants and healthy controls, with these differences being influenced by the cognitive demands of the speech tasks. These post-pause speech metrics can be easily integrated into existing speech analysis paradigms.

The effects of a training package to teach note taking on the formation of equivalence classes.

Effective note taking may enhance learning outcomes for students and serve as a directly observable form of mediation within a test context. Frampton et al. (2023) used stimulus fading to teach note taking in the form of a graphic organizer (GO) during matching-to-sample baseline relations training (MTS-BRT). Moderately high yields were observed with young adults despite the use of linear series training, abstract stimuli, and five-member classes. The present study taught the same note taking strategy using an intervention package including video illustration, voice-over instructions, and feedback to eight college students. Participants were taught to construct the GO during MTS-BRT with three three-member classes of familiar stimuli. Then the effects of MTS-BRT alone with three five-member classes of abstract stimuli was evaluated. Participants efficiently completed training with familiar stimuli and passed the posttest on the first attempt. With the abstract stimuli, participants engaged in GO construction during MTS-BRT and the six participants that demonstrated high levels of fidelity to the trained note taking strategy passed the posttest on the first attempt. These results replicate findings from Frampton et al. while using a more efficient intervention package. Benefits of teaching overt mediation responses are discussed as well as future directions for translation to applied contexts.

The Effects of Hyperbaric Oxygen Treatment on Verbal Scores in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Retrospective Trial.

Introduction Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition that affects millions worldwide. Suggested pathophysiology includes cerebral hypoperfusion, inflammation, mitochondrial and immune dysregulation, and oxidative stress. Debate exists concerning the benefit of hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) in treating ASD and its impacts on verbal behavior. The present study directly assesses the impacts of HBOT treatments on verbal behavior using a novel and unique manner.  Materials and methods A two-group quasi-experimental trial using a pretest and a posttest was designed to retrospectively assess (n = 65) any association between HBOT and change in verbal scores in children (n = 65) with ASD. All children completed two verbal tests six months apart, either the Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program (VBMAPP) or the Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills (ABLLS), based on their developmental age. The control cohort received applied behavior analysis (ABA) without HBOT. The experimental cohort received ABA and a minimum of 40 HBOT treatments, breathing 100% oxygen at 2.0 atmosphere absolute (ATA) for 60 minutes. Results Sixty-five children were included, of which 32 received HBOT (mean (M) = 5.1, standard deviation (SD) = 2.93), with an age range of two to 17 years. More than 63% of the subjects had an autism severity level of three. The 23 children administered VBMAPP who received HBOT showed substantial mean differences with high effect sizes (ESs) (-0.743 to -1.65) and a total score (TS) ES equal to -1.23 as measured by Cohen's d. There was a statistically significant improvement (p < 0.05) in all VBMAPP milestone domains and TS. TS change from baseline versus those in the non-HBOT (Control-ABA) group (n=12) was 46.41 ± 20.14 vs 14.42 ± 6.99; p < 0.0001, ES = -1.23. The 30 children administered the ABLLS showed substantial mean difference (TS) change from baseline 268.89 ± 182.05 vs 190.81 ± 135.26 and exhibited small to medium (-.114 to -.773) ESs with a TS ES = -0.487. Due to the high within-group variability (low statistical power) within the ABLLS cohort, there was a non-significant mean difference between the control (ABA) and experimental (ABA + HBO2) groups' difference scores (p > 0.2024), despite the medium (TS) ES. Conclusions The child cohorts administered the VBMAPP and the ABLLS demonstrated substantial improvements between the non-HBOT (control-ABA) and HBOT (experimental-ABA + HBO2) groups as measured by the significant mean differences and small to large ESs. Simply put, the children in the experimental cohort acquired more verbal skills than their counterparts in the control group.

Effect of acetaminophen on relieving orthodontic pain with clear aligner based on GAD-7: A retrospective research.

Objectives: Patients may have uncomfortable feelings during orthodontic treatment, which can directly lead to dissatisfaction. So in order to improve the patient's sense of pleasure during the treatment, it would be of great benefit if orthodontic pain can be relieved. Materials and methods: We included 150 patients wearing clear aligners from 18 to 30 years old during 2018-2020. Then designed following groups to determine the effectiveness of both verbal behavior modification and combination therapy with acetaminophen in reducing treatment pain: Group A, generalized anxiety disorder 7 (GAD-7) scored 0-4; Group B, GAD-7 scored 5-9; Group C, GAD-7 scored 10-14; and Group D, GAD-7 scored 15-21. Results: There was a difference in the visual analog scale (VAS) between verbal behavior modification with and without a 300-mg acetaminophen tablet oral QD in Group A (received the intervention at 8 h and 1 d), Group B at 8 h and 1 d, Group C at 8 h, 1 d, 2 d, and 3 d, and Group D at 8 h, 1 d, 2 d, 3 d, and 4 d. After 8 h, 1 d, 2 d, 3 d, and 4 d in patients with verbal behavior modification, VAS was markedly increased in Group D compared with Group A, B and C. Furthermore, after 8 h and 1 d in patients with verbal behavior modification and 300-mg acetaminophen tablet oral QD, VAS was strongly enhanced in Group D. Conclusions: Dental anxiety is strongly associated with pain in orthodontic patients receiving clear aligners. Acetaminophen administration may be a benefit in orthodontic pain that results from clear aligners, especially in the group with more GAD-7.

The Effects of Vocal Blocking on Sequencing Visual and Tactile Stimuli.

The inclusion of private events in the philosophy of our science is integral to avoid dualism and remain objective rather than making assumptions about an unseen mind. However, the inclusion of behaviors and stimuli which cannot be observed in an analysis poses obvious issues. One established method of studying covert behavior is to examine tasks that are presumed to require verbal mediation, and observing how a participant's performance is affected when they are required to speak out loud during the task (often called "blocking"), again presuming this will make it difficult or impossible to simultaneously talk to yourself covertly. This study investigated the effects of vocal blocking on a sequencing task, or lining things up in a specified order. In one experiment, the items sequenced were abstract line drawings, and a second experiment used differently textured fabric stimuli (or "tactile cards"). In the second experiment, participants learned to tact and then sequence the tactile stimuli while they were blindfolded. The effect of vocal blocking on putative covert rehearsal was dissimilar across the two modalities of the experiments. This preliminary study provides insight into the nature of covert behavior as it relates to different senses and opens questions about the generality of studies examining covert mediation.

A Treatment Evaluation of Successive and Simultaneous Visual Stimulus Presentation During Tact Training with Children with Autism.

The purpose of this study was to assess whether variations in visual stimulus presentation during tact training would affect efficacy, efficiency, and the emergence of listener responses. Participants included two preschool-aged children diagnosed with autism. We implemented two teaching conditions using an adapted alternating treatment design with intrasubject replications. During successive tact training, the experimenter presented one picture per trial. During simultaneous training, the experimenter pointed to the target picture in a stimulus array. For one participant, both procedures were similarly effective and efficient. For another participant, successive tact training generated fewer errors and better efficiency results. Moreover, both formats resulted in accurate listener responding. Our results suggest that both procedures are effective, and that the simultaneous format may be a viable alternative for teaching tacts.

Revisiting Topography-Based and Selection-Based Verbal Behavior.

In topography-based verbal behavior, different antecedent stimuli control different topographies of responding, whereas in selection-based verbal behavior, different antecedent stimuli control the selection of visually distinct stimuli from an array of options. In this article, we point out three variable characteristics of selection-based behavior, highlighted by recent technological developments, that affect its similarity to topography-based behavior: The extent to which stimuli can be constructed from minimal units, the size and composition of the selection array, and the similarity of response-produced stimuli to verbal stimuli that are prevalent in the speaker's verbal community. Although a distinction between topography-based and selection-based behavior has merit, particular characteristics of a selection-based verbal behavior modality may often be more relevant for researchers and clinicians to consider than its status as selection-based.

Naming: What Do We Know So Far? A Systematic Review.

Although the term naming is used colloquially in the English language, it refers to a specific instance of verbal behavior within behavior analysis. Since Horne and Lowe's (Horne & Lowe, 1996) seminal account on naming, the concept continues to generate clinical and research interest to-date. We conducted a systematic search of the behavior analytic studies on naming to highlight the methods that were used to test naming, the terminology that have been adopted, the conceptual underpinnings, and the methods used to train naming if it was found to be absent. Forty-six studies met inclusion criteria and we conducted a descriptive analysis of these studies. We found that most studies either used the terms naming or bidirectional naming. We found wide variation in the methods used to test and train naming. Nearly one third of these studies attempted to offer evidence that naming facilitated some other type of behavior, and the remaining studies attempted to train naming in individuals when the behavior was found to be absent. Overall, our review highlighted that there exists a rich empirical dataset on testing and training naming within behavior analysis, and we discussed specific areas for future research.

Explaining First Language Acquisition in Terms of Basic Behavioral Processes: Introduction to the Special Section.

This special section of Perspectives on Behavior Science follows up on a virtual panel discussion on the role of operant and Pavlovian processes in children's language learning. We present four articles, including two contributed by panelists, that illustrate the explanatory power of operant conditioning processes in the study of language.

Alterações pragmáticas em crianças com Transtorno Fonológico: uma revisão sistemática / Pragmatic disorders in children with Phonological Disorder: a systematic review / Alteraciones pragmáticas en niños con Trastorno Fonológico: una revisión sistemática

Introdução: A pragmática é definida como o uso social da linguagem e a fonologia diz respeito à organização fonêmica e silábica. No Transtorno Fonológico são observadas alterações nessa organização, sendo possível também afetar a pragmática. Objetivo: Compreender e demonstrar se há alterações pragmáticas em crianças com Transtorno Fonológico. Metodologia: A busca por estudos foi realizada utilizando as bases de dados eletrônicas: Embase, Google Scholar, Portal Biblioteca Virtual em Saúde (BVS) - (LILACS), PubMed, SciELO, Scopus, Web of Science, e Base de Dados de Teses e Dissertações. Foram utilizados os descritores: "child", "speech sound disorder", "language tests", "verbal behavior", "social communication disorder" e "observational studies as topic" e seus sinônimos. Os artigos selecionados atendiam aos seguintes critérios: amostra composta por crianças de 4 a 10 anos com Transtorno Fonológico e dentro do desenvolvimento padrão, apresentar avaliações da pragmática dessas crianças, e delineamento observacional. A análise dos artigos foi feita pela leitura na íntegra e os dados foram extraídos para a avaliação da qualidade metodológica e dos achados. Resultados: Foram encontrados seis artigos, sendo quatro nacionais e dois internacionais. Discussão: Cinco estudos demonstraram haver alterações pragmáticas em crianças com Transtorno Fonológico, enquanto um concluiu que não havia relação. Considerações finais: A presente revisão sistemática revelou que estudos evidenciam alterações pragmáticas em crianças com Transtorno Fonológico, especialmente acerca da inteligibilidade de fala e de como isso afeta as iniciativas de comunicação. Todavia, devido ao baixo número de estudos, são necessárias futuras pesquisas na temática para dados com evidências mais robustas. (AU)

Introduction: Pragmatics is defined as the social use of language while phonology looks to phonemic and syllabic organization. In the phonological disorder, problems are observed in this organization being possible to affect the pragmatics too. Objective: To understand and demonstrate if there are pragmatic alterations in children with Phonological Disorder. Methodology: The search for studies was carried out using electronic databases: Embase, Google Scholar, BVS - (LILACS), PubMed, SciELO, Scopus, Web of Science and The Theses and Dissertations Database. The descriptors used were: "child", "speech sound disorder", "language tests", "verbal behavior", "social communication disorder" and "observational studies as topic" and their synonyms. The selected articles met the following criteria: sample composed of children aged 4 to 10 with phonological disorder and within standard development, evaluations of the pragmatics of these children, and observational design. The articles were analyzed by reading them in their entirety and the data were extracted to evaluate the methodological quality and the findings. Results: Six articles were found, four national and two international. Discussion: Five studies showed that there were pragmatic alterations in children with phonological disorder and one concluded that there was no relationship. Final considerations: The present systematic review revealed that the studies show pragmatic alterations in children with phonological disorder, especially regarding the intelligibility of their speech and how this may affect communication initiatives. However, due to the low number of studies, there seems to be a need for future research relating the two subjects for such evidence to be more robust. (AU)

Introducción: La pragmática se define como el uso social del lenguaje y la fonología como la organización fonémica y silábica. En el Trastorno Fonológico, hay cambios en esta organización, y es posible afectar la pragmática. Objetivo: Comprender y demostrar si existen cambios pragmáticos en niños con Trastorno Fonológico. Metodología: Búsqueda de estudios realizados en bases de datos electrónicas: Embase, Google Scholar, Portal Biblioteca Virtual en Salud (BVS) - (LILACS), PubMed, SciELO, Scopus, Web of Science y Banco de Tesis y Disertaciones. Fueron utilizados los siguientes descriptores: "niño", "trastorno de los sonidos del habla", "pruebas de lenguaje", "conducta verbal", "trastorno de la comunicación social" y "estudios observacionales como tema" y sus sinónimos. Los artículos seleccionados cumplieron con los siguientes criterios: muestra compuesta por niños de 4 a 10 años con Trastorno Fonológico y dentro del desarrollo estándar, valoraciones de la pragmática de estos niños y diseño observacional. Los artículos fueron analizados mediante lectura comprensiva y se extrajeron datos para evaluar la calidad metodológica de los hallazgos. Resultados: Se encontraron seis artículos, cuatro nacionales y dos internacionales. Discusión: Cinco estudios mostraron cambios pragmáticos en niños con Trastorno Fonológico y uno concluyó que no había relación. Consideraciones finales: Esta revisión sistemática reveló que los estudios muestran alteraciones pragmáticas en niños con Trastorno Fonológico, especialmente en cuanto a la inteligibilidad de su habla y cómo esto puede afectar las iniciativas de comunicación. Sin embargo, debido al bajo número de estudios, se necesita más investigación sobre el tema para que la evidencia sea más sólida. (AU)

Unravelling the relation between altruistic cooperativeness trait, smiles, and cooperation: a mediation analysis.

Introduction: Human cooperativeness is an important personality trait. However, the mechanism through which people cooperate remains unclear. Previous research suggests that one of the proposed functions of smiling is to advertise altruistic dispositions, leading to successful cooperation. In particular, studies have reported that Duchenne smiles are honest signals of cooperative intent because they are not easy to produce voluntarily. This study aimed to examine the predictive relationships among altruistic cooperativeness traits, Duchenne smiles, and cooperative behavior. Methods: A total of 90 people were randomly assigned to dyads and filmed while they participated in a ten-minute, unstructured conversation followed by a prisoner's dilemma game to measure their cooperative behaviors. Their smiles during conversations were classified as Duchenne or non-Duchenne. Participants' altruistic dispositions were measured before the conversation began using an anonymous prisoner's dilemma game. Results: The results of our linear regression analyses support previous findings that individual's Duchenne smiles and their own cooperative behavior are positively correlated. However, when we controlled for altruistic cooperativeness, Duchenne smiles no longer correlated with cooperative behavior. The results of the mediation analyses showed that Duchenne smiles and smile synchrony did not mediate the predictive relationship between altruistic cooperativeness and cooperative behavior. Discussion: Our results suggest that human cooperative behavior may be predetermined by altruistic cooperativeness. This calls for the reconsideration of the Duchenne smile as an underlying behavioral mechanism that is effective for signaling altruistic cooperative intent.