Brain activity associated with emotion regulation predicts individual differences in working memory ability.

Previous behavioral research has found that working memory is associated with emotion regulation efficacy. However, there has been mixed evidence as to whether the neural mechanisms between emotion regulation and working memory overlap. The present study tested the prediction that individual differences on the working memory subtest of the Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV) could be predicted from the pattern of brain activity produced during emotion regulation in regions typically associated with working memory, such as the dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC). A total of 101 participants completed an emotion regulation fMRI task in which they either viewed or reappraised negative images. Participants also completed working memory test outside the scanner. A whole brain covariate analysis contrasting the reappraise negative and view negative BOLD response found that activity in the right dlPFC positively related to working memory ability. Moreover, a multivoxel pattern analysis approach using tenfold cross-validated support vector regression in regions-of-interest associated with working memory, including bilateral dlPFC, demonstrated that we could predict individual differences in working memory ability from the pattern of activity associated with emotion regulation. These findings support the idea that emotion regulation shares underlying cognitive processes and neural mechanisms with working memory, particularly in the dlPFC.

Time-course effects of exercise intervention on executive function in adolescents with obesity.

Objective: This study was to investigate the developmental characteristics of executive function (EF) in obese adolescents and the time-course effects of a 14-week exercise intervention combining aerobic exercise and resistance training on EF in this population. Methods: The experimental group of 28 obese junior high school students participated in the exercise intervention combining aerobic exercise and resistance training, while the control group of 24 healthy weight junior high school students engaged in the regular recess exercise. EF, including inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, was assessed 1 week prior to the exercise intervention and at 12 and 14 weeks post-intervention. Changes in EF sub-functions in both groups at different time points during the exercise intervention were analyzed. Results: The findings revealed that obese junior high school students exhibited lower levels of inhibition (p = 0.003, Cohen's d = 0.848) and cognitive flexibility (p = 0.013, Cohen's d = 0.706) compared to their healthy weight peers. The exercise intervention combining aerobic exercise and resistance training led to significant improvements in EF among obese junior high school students, with inhibition (p < 0.01, Cohen's d = 0.713; p = 0.003, Cohen's d = 0.683) and cognitive flexibility (p = 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.797; p < 0.01, Cohen's d = 0.890) showing significant improvement at 12 and 14 weeks post-intervention, and working memory demonstrating significant improvement at 14 weeks (p = 0.004, Cohen's d = 0.710). No significant differences were observed in EF over time in healthy weight junior high school students. Conclusion: Obese adolescents had impaired EF, as evidenced by low levels of the inhibition and cognitive flexibility compared to healthy weight adolescents. The exercise intervention combining aerobic exercise and resistance training had a positive effect on EF of obese adolescents. The time-course effects of the intervention on improvements in inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility varied with intervention duration in obese adolescents, with significant changes in inhibition and cognitive flexibility observed at 12 weeks and significant changes in working memory at 14 weeks.

GABAergic dysfunction in postmortem dorsolateral prefrontal cortex: implications for cognitive deficits in schizophrenia and affective disorders.

The microcircuitry within superficial layers of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), composed of excitatory pyramidal neurons and inhibitory GABAergic interneurons, has been suggested as the neural substrate of working memory performance. In schizophrenia, working memory impairments are thought to result from alterations of microcircuitry within the DLPFC. GABAergic interneurons, in particular, are crucially involved in synchronizing neural activity at gamma frequency, the power of which increases with working memory load. Alterations of GABAergic interneurons, particularly parvalbumin (PV) and somatostatin (SST) subtypes, are frequently observed in schizophrenia. Abnormalities of GABAergic neurotransmission, such as deficiencies in the 67 kDA isoform of GABA synthesis enzyme (GAD67), vesicular GABA transporter (vGAT), and GABA reuptake transporter 1 (GAT1) in presynaptic boutons, as well as postsynaptic alterations in GABA A receptor subunits further contribute to impaired inhibition. This review explores GABAergic abnormalities of the postmortem DLPFC in schizophrenia, with a focus on the roles of interneuron subtypes involved in cognition, and GABAergic neurotransmission within presynaptic boutons and postsynaptic alterations. Where available, comparisons between schizophrenia and affective disorders that share cognitive pathology such as bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder will be made. Challenges in directly measuring GABA levels are addressed, emphasizing the need for innovative techniques. Understanding GABAergic abnormalities and their implications for neural circuit dysfunction in schizophrenia is crucial for developing targeted therapies.

Unravelling the object-based nature of visual working memory: insight from pointers.

Visual working memory (VWM) plays a crucial role in temporarily storing and processing visual information, but the nature of stored representations and their interaction with new inputs has long been unclear. The pointer system refers to how VWM links new sensory inputs to stored information using specific cues. This study aimed to investigate whether the pointer system is based on spatial, feature-based, or object-based cues by employing the repetition benefit effect, where memory performance improves with repeated memory items. Across three experiments, we manipulated spatial positions, shapes, and colors as pointer cues to determine how these features affect VWM consolidation and updating. The results showed that while spatial location serves as a strong pointer cue, shape and color features can also effectively reestablish object correspondence in VWM. These findings support the view that the pointer system in VWM is flexible and object-based, utilizing various feature cues to maintain memory continuity. This study provides new insights into how VWM connects new inputs with stored information through the pointer system.

Intrinsic functional networks for distinct sources of error in visual working memory.

Visual working memory (VWM) is a core cognitive function wherein visual information is stored and manipulated over short periods. Response errors in VWM tasks arise from the imprecise memory of target items, swaps between targets and nontargets, and random guesses. However, it remains unclear whether these types of errors are underpinned by distinct neural networks. To answer this question, we recruited 80 healthy adults to perform delayed estimation tasks and acquired their resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging scans. The tasks required participants to reproduce the memorized visual feature along continuous scales, which, combined with mixture distribution modeling, allowed us to estimate the measures of memory precision, swap errors, and random guesses. Intrinsic functional connectivity within and between different networks, identified using a hierarchical clustering approach, was estimated for each participant. Our analyses revealed that higher memory precision was associated with increased connectivity within a frontal-opercular network, as well as between the dorsal attention network and an angular-gyrus-cerebellar network. We also found that coupling between the frontoparietal control network and the cingulo-opercular network contributes to both memory precision and random guesses. Our findings demonstrate that distinct sources of variability in VWM performance are underpinned by different yet partially overlapping intrinsic functional networks.

Cortical activation in elderly patients with Alzheimer's disease dementia during working memory tasks: a multichannel fNIRS study.

Objective: This study aimed to investigate cortical activation and functional connectivity in the cortex during working memory (WM) tasks in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Methods: A total of 17 older adults with AD and 17 cognitively normal (CN) participants were recruited. fNIRS was utilized to monitor oxygenated hemoglobin (HbO) concentrations in the frontotemporal lobe, while participants performed WM tasks to examine WM impairments in subjects with AD. Student's t-test for continuous variables and the chi-square test for categorical variables were used to compare the clinical and HbO variables between the AD and CN groups. Functional connectivity was analyzed using Pearson's correlation coefficient between the time series of each channel-to-channel pair. Results: The changes in HbO concentrations and cortical activations during the WM task showed that the HbO concentration curve of the CN group was higher than that of the AD group during the encoding and maintenance phases of the WM task. Although in the brain region scale, there were no significant differences in average HbO concentrations between the two groups, many channels located in the frontal and temporal lobes showed significant differences (p < 0.05) in the average HbO (channels 7 and 32) and slope HbO values (channels 7, 8, 9, 23, 30, 34, and 38) during the WM task. The average functional connectivity of the AD group was significantly lower than that of the CN group (p < 0.05). The functional connectivity was stronger in the frontopolar (FP) region than in other areas in both groups. Conclusion: This study revealed there were significant differences in HbO concentration in older adult patients with AD compared to CN during the WM task. The characteristics of HbO measured by the fNIRS technique can be valuable for distinguishing between AD and CN in older adults.

Eye-tracking training improves visuospatial working memory of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder.

Given the close connection between eye movement and frontal lobe functions and some evidence supporting the effect of eye-tracking training on enhancing cognitive performance mediated by the frontal lobe, this study aimed to explore if after-school eye-tracking training can improve the visuospatial working memory (VSWM) and cognitive flexibility performance in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This study is a non-randomized cluster trial. Forty children from eight primary schools were selected, half receiving eye-tracking training for 20 sessions over 9 months, while the other half served as a waitlist control. They were matched on demographic characteristics and baseline cognitive performance. Their VSWM and cognitive flexibility were assessed at the beginning and end of the study. Results showed that children who received eye-tracking training, but not those on a waitlist, exhibited significant improvements in the total score and working memory span of the VSWM tests, and the correct responses in cognitive flexibility tests. Specifically, VSWM performance at higher span levels (5 or above) yielded a greater improvement. The findings suggest that eye-tracking training can be a feasible and effective after-school program for improving working memory and cognitive flexibility performance in children with ADHD and ASD. This study was prospectively registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (https://clinicaltrials.gov/, trial number: NCT05428657).

Effect of negative emotional stimuli on working memory: Impact of voluntary and automatic attention.

Emotions are known to influence cognitive performance, particularly working memory (WM) in both its aspects, processing, and maintenance. One explanatory mechanism might be that negative stimuli capture attentional resources, leaving fewer resources for attentional maintenance and processing of information in WM. However, this attentional capture was only investigated using WM tasks in which participants were explicitly asked to process negative items. The aim of this paper was to determine whether explicit processing of emotional stimuli is necessary to impair WM performance, or if their mere presence is enough to capture attention. For this purpose, participants performed a complex span task in which they alternated between memorizing a series of neutral words and processing either emotional images or neutral ones. In Experiment 1, participants were instructed to explicitly process emotional images, whereas in Experiment 2, emotional images were presented without any processing being required. In both experiments, we observed a decrease in memory performance when the images were negative compared to neutral. Whether or not voluntary processing is involved, emotional images seem to capture attentional resources, which in turn leads to a decline in memory performance. These results were discussed in relation to attentional theories and the influence of emotion on the specific mechanisms of WM.

Relationship of prefrontal cortex activity with anhedonia and cognitive function in major depressive disorder: an fNIRS study.

Background: Major depressive disorder (MDD) is associated with deficits in cognitive function, thought to be related to underlying decreased hedonic experiences. Further research is needed to fully elucidate the role of functional brain activity in this relationship. In this study, we investigated the neurofunctional correlate of the interplay between cognitive function and hedonic experiences in medication-free MDD using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Methods: We examine differences of brain activation corresponding to the verbal fluency test (VFT) between MDD patients and healthy controls (HCs). Fifty-six MDD patients and 35 HCs underwent fMRI scanning while performing the VFT. In exploratory analyses, cognitive performance, as assessed by the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB), four dimensions of hedonic processing (desire, motivation, effort, and consummatory pleasure) measured by the Dimensional Anhedonia Rating Scale (DARS), and relative changes in oxygenated hemoglobin concentration during the VFT were compared across groups. Results: Patients with MDD demonstrated impairments in sustained attention and working memory, accompanied by lower total and subscale scores on the DARS. Compared to healthy controls, MDD patients exhibited reduced activation in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) during the VFT task (t = 2.32 to 4.77, p < 0.001 to 0.02, FDR corrected). DARS motivation, desire, and total scores as well as sustained attention, were positively correlated with activation in the dorsolateral PFC and Broca's area (p < 0.05, FDR corrected). Conclusions: These findings indicate that changes in prefrontal lobe oxygenated hemoglobin levels, a region implicated in hedonic motivation and cognitive function, may serve as potential biomarkers for interventions targeting individuals with MDD. Our results corroborate the clinical consensus that the prefrontal cortex is a primary target for non-invasive neuromodulatory treatments for depression.

Putting the "Return" Back in the Inhibition of Return Effect in Working Memory.

The inhibition of return effect in perception refers to the observation that one is slower to re-attend a location that was attended right before, compared to a location that was not attended right before. Johnson et al. (2013, Psych. Sc., 24, 1104-1112, doi:10.1177/0956797612466414) observed a similar inhibitory effect for an attended item in working memory, which the authors referred to as an inhibition-of-return-like effect. However, testing an inhibition of return effect requires attention to be disengaged from the attended item, before testing whether participants are slower to return to said item. This was assumed but not experimentally manipulated in the paradigm by Johnson and colleagues. In the current study, we investigated whether an inhibition of return effect can be observed in working memory when attention is experimentally disengaged from the attended item before measuring whether responses are slower for the item in question. Participants were indeed slower to respond to a memory probe that matched the item that was attended right before, compared to a memory probe that matched the item that was not attended right before. Thus, our test with more experimental control did result in an inhibition of return effect in working memory.

Correlation of muscle strength, working memory, and activities of daily living in older adults.

Objective: This study aims to investigate the relationship between muscle strength, working memory, and activities of daily living (ADL) in older adults. Additionally, it seeks to clarify the pathways and effects of working memory in mediating the relationship between muscle strength and ADL. Methods: Using a cross-sectional study design, we recruited 245 older adults individuals from nursing homes. We collected data on grip strength, the 30-s sit-to-stand test, the N-back task, and ADL. The data were analyzed using independent sample t-tests, χ2 tests, correlation analysis, and structural equation modeling. Results: Grip strength significantly influenced ADL (effect size = -0.175, 95% CI: -0.226 to -0.124). Grip strength also had a significant direct effect on ADL (effect size = -0.114, 95% CI: -0.161 to -0.067). The 1-back task correct rate significantly mediated the relationship between grip strength and ADL (effect size = 0.054, 95% CI: -0.084 to -0.029). The 30-s sit-to-stand test significantly impacted ADL (effect size = -0.280, 95% CI: -0.358 to -0.203). It also had a significant direct effect on ADL (effect size = -0.095, 95% CI: -0.183 to -0.007). The 1-back task correct rate significantly mediated the relationship between the 30-s sit-to-stand test and ADL (effect size = -0.166, 95% CI: -0.236 to -0.106). Conclusion: There exists a strong correlation between muscle strength, working memory, and ADL. Increased muscle strength leads to better ADL performance and improved working memory tasks. Low cognitive load working memory tasks can mediate the relationship between muscle strength and ADL. Regular physical exercise can enhance muscle strength, slow down the decline of working memory, thereby maintaining or improving ADL in older adults.

Inhibitory control and working memory predict rhythm production abilities in patients with neurocognitive deficits.

Deficits in rhythm perception and production have been reported in a variety of psychiatric, neurodevelopmental and neurologic disorders. Since correlations between rhythmic abilities and cognitive functions have been demonstrated in neurotypical individuals, we here investigate whether and how rhythmic abilities are associated with cognitive functions in 35 participants with neurocognitive deficits due to acquired brain lesions. We systematically assessed a diverse set of rhythm perception and production abilities including time and beat perception and finger-tapping tasks. Neuropsychological tests were applied to assess separable cognitive functions. Using multiple regression analyses we show that lower variability in aligning movements to a pacing sequence was predicted by better inhibitory control and better working memory performance. Working memory performance also predicted lower variability of rhythmic movements in the absence of an external pacing sequence and better anticipatory timing to sequences with gradual tempo changes. Importantly, these predictors remained significant for all regression models when controlling for other cognitive variables (i.e., cognitive flexibility, information processing speed, and verbal learning ability) and potential confounders (i.e., age, symptom strength of depression, manual dexterity, duration of illness, severity of cognitive impairment, and musical experience). Thus, all rhythm production abilities were significantly predicted by measures of executive functions. In contrast, rhythm perception abilities (time perception / beat perception) were not predicted by executive functions in this study. Our results, enhancing the understanding of cognitive underpinnings of rhythmic abilities in individuals with neurocognitive deficits, may be a first mandatory step to further potential therapeutic implications of rhythm-based interventions in neuropsychological rehabilitation.

Central Auditory Processing Abilities in Children with Non-Syndromic Cleft Lip/and Palate-a Behavioural Study.

The present study aimed to assess the central auditory processing abilities and working memory in children with non-syndromic cleft lip and palate (NSCLP) and to compare with the developed normative and craniofacially normal peers. Sixteen NSCLP children aged 7 to 12 years and fifteen craniofacially normal peers were recruited in this study. Speech perception in noise Kannada (SPIN-K), gap detection threshold (GDT), dichotic consonant-vowel (DCV), and masking level difference (MLD) tests were administered to assess various central auditory processing abilities. Working memory abilities were assessed by using forward-digit span and backward-digit span tests. The results showed significant differences in SPIN-K, dichotic CV, GDT, forward digit, and backward digit span scores between children with NSCLP and craniofacially normal peers. Thus, it can be concluded from the present study that children with NSCLP have a risk of developing auditory processing deficits. To conclude, assessment of central auditory processing abilities in children with NSCLP is recommended.

A meta-analysis of the effects of transcranial direct current stimulation combined with cognitive training on working memory in healthy older adults.

Background: Working memory (WM) loss, which can lead to a loss of independence, and declines in the quality of life of older adults, is becoming an increasingly prominent issue affecting the ageing population. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), a non-invasive brain stimulation technique, is emerging as a potential alternative to pharmacological treatments that shows promise for enhancing WM capacity and May enhance the effects of cognitive training (CT) interventions. Objective: The purpose of this meta-analysis was to explore how different tDCS protocols in combination with CT enhanced WM in healthy older adults. Methods: Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) exploring the effects of tDCS combined with CT on WM in healthy older adults were retrieved from the Web of Science, PubMed, Embase, Scopus and the Cochrane Library databases. The search time period ranged from database inception to January 15, 2024. Methodological quality of the trials was assessed using the risk-of-bias criteria for RCTs from the Cochrane Collaboration Network, and RevMan 5.3 (Cochrane, London, United Kingdom) was used for the meta-analysis of the final literature outcomes. Results: Six RCTs with a total of 323 participants were ultimately included. The results of the meta-analysis show that tDCS combined with CT statistically significantly improves WM performance compared to the control sham stimulation group in healthy older adults [standard mean difference (SMD) = 0.35, 95% CI: 0.11-0.59, I 2 = 0%, Z = 2.86, p = 0.004]. The first subgroup analysis indicated that, when the stimulus intensity was 2 mA, a statistically significant improvement in WM performance in healthy older adults was achieved (SMD = 0.39, 95% CI: 0.08-0.70, I 2 = 6%, Z = 2.46, p = 0.01). The second subgroup analysis showed that long-term intervention (≥ 10 sessions) with tDCS combined with CT statistically significantly improved WM compared to the control group in healthy older adults (SMD = 0.72, 95% CI: 0.22-1.21, I 2 = 0%, Z = 2.85, p = 0.004). Conclusion: tDCS combined with CT statistically significantly improves WM in healthy older adults. For the stimulus parameters, long-term interventions (≥ 10 sessions) with a stimulation intensity of 2 mA are the most effective.

A new neuropsychological tool for simultaneous reading and executive functions assessment: initial psychometric properties.

Introduction: The development of reading and complex executive functions is fundamental for achieving social, academic, and professional success. So far, there is no single neuropsychological instrument that comprehensively assesses the domains of inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, working memory, and reading comprehension. To assess executive functions related to reading, the "Assessment of Reading and Executive Functions" (AREF) was developed. In this study, we show initial evidence of validity and reliability for four subtests - Graphophonological-Semantic Flexibility, Inhibitory Control, Flexibility, and Working Memory. Methods: A total of 93 students from 4th to 9th grade, aged 8-14, in public (n = 61) and private (n = 32) schools were evaluated. Tasks from the AREF instrument, as well as measures of reading comprehension, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, working memory, and intelligence, were administered. Correlations between AREF scores and the other measures were performed to assess external construct validity. Performance differences between school groups on AREF subtests were analyzed using ANOVA, t-test, and Mann-Whitney tests, and the internal consistency of the instrument's tasks was evaluated using Cronbach's alpha coefficient. Results: The scores of the AREF subtests demonstrated significant positive correlations with reading measures (ranging from 0.339 to 0.367) and executive functions (ranging from 0.209 to 0.396). Significant differences were found in the performance of some AREF tasks when comparing individuals from public and private schools, as well as between 4th and 5th graders compared to students in higher grades. The internal consistency of the tasks was low for Graphophonological-Semantic Flexibility (Cronbach's α = 0.566), moderate for Inhibitory Control and Flexibility (Cronbach's α = 0.768), and high for Working Memory (Cronbach's α = 0.881). Discussion: The results provide initial evidence of construct validity and reliability for the AREF subtests. It is expected that this new neuropsychological test will contribute to the assessment of reading skills and executive functions, assisting in guiding clinical and educational interventions for individuals with and without neurodevelopmental disorders.

A review of the importance of top-down processing assessment in auditory processing disorder.

INTRODUCTION: Auditory perception process is a transient phenomenon, which enables the person to make the relationship between events and auditory factor by working memory and obtain the sequence of auditory features and be able differentiate the auditory sources by using these component. In auditory processing, the basis formed by bottom - up process (data - driven). This pathway is dependent on the central auditory integration and also on acoustic signal input and interpreting auditory information is involved top-down process (concept - driven), which this pathway is dependent on central higher resource such as perception, attention, working memory and its span. The purpose of this study was to address information about top-down processing and auditory processing disorder. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A review of the latest literature on (central) auditory processing disorders and top-down processing was performed using PUBMED, EBSCO, SCIENCE DIRECT, ASHA, GOOGLE SCHOLAR, THIEME, PROQUEST data sources. CONCLUSION: Deficit in cognitive processing of auditory information in children cause difficulty in processing auditory information and outbreak auditory processing disorder symptoms. Cognitive evaluation (especially working memory) in this subject is important as bottom-up processing evaluation.

Working Memory Is as Working Memory Does: A Pluralist Take on the Center of the Mind.

Working memory is thought to be the psychological capacity that enables us to maintain or manipulate information no longer in our environment for goal-directed action. Recent work argues that working memory is not a so-called natural kind and in turn cannot explain the cognitive processes attributed to it. This paper first clarifies the scope of this earlier critique and argues for a pluralist account of working memory. Under this account, working memory is variously realized by many mechanisms that contribute to the maintenance and manipulation of information across tasks. This view in effect updates one of the earliest pluralist formulations of working memory. Juxtaposing this view against deflationary descriptions allows us to delineate two gradients that help us chart various accounts of working memory and identify their respective theoretical commitments. In turn, we can isolate those accounts that fail to accord with the evidence supporting a pluralist view, and we can begin to rehabilitate working memory as a pluralist, and ultimately more informative, construct.

Modifiable dementia risk factors associated with objective and subjective cognition.

INTRODUCTION: Early detection of both objective and subjective cognitive impairment is important. Subjective complaints in healthy individuals can precede objective deficits. However, the differential associations of objective and subjective cognition with modifiable dementia risk factors are unclear. METHODS: We gathered a large cross-sectional sample (N = 3327, age 18 to 84) via a smartphone app and quantified the associations of 13 risk factors with subjective memory problems and three objective measures of executive function (visual working memory, cognitive flexibility, model-based planning). RESULTS: Depression, socioeconomic status, hearing handicap, loneliness, education, smoking, tinnitus, little exercise, small social network, stroke, diabetes, and hypertension were all associated with impairments in at least one cognitive measure. Subjective memory had the strongest link to most factors; these associations persisted after controlling for depression. Age mostly did not moderate these associations. DISCUSSION: Subjective cognition was more sensitive to self-report risk factors than objective cognition. Smartphones could facilitate detecting the earliest cognitive impairments. HIGHLIGHTS: Smartphone assessments of cognition were sensitive to dementia risk factors. Subjective cognition had stronger links to most factors than did objective cognition. These associations were not fully explained by depression. These associations were largely consistent across the lifespan.

Investigation of comparative Nonword repetition performance in multiple sclerosis: Group differences, subtype variations, and disability effects.

This study investigated Nonword Repetition (NWR) tasks in individuals with Multiple Sclerosis (MS) compared to healthy controls (HC), focusing on phonological working memory (WMP). Significant differences were found in NWR acurracy (NWRacc) score between MS subgroups and HC (H = 48.2, p < 0.001). NWRacc decreased as the number of syllables increased in both groups, indicating increased cognitive load. All MS subtypes showed lower NWRacc compared to HC across varying syllable lengths (Mann Whitney U Test: two syllables U = 64.5, p < 0.001; three syllables U = 183, p < 0.001; four syllables U = 248, p < 0.001; five syllables U = 283.5, p < 0.001). However, no significant differences were found within MS subtypes based on syllable length. NWRacc did not differ between mild and severe MS groups. Overall, the NWR test effectively assessed WMP in MS, highlighting its utility in diagnosing and addressing language-cognitive challenges in individuals with MS. This underscores the importance of tailored intervention strategies to mitigate these challenges.

Learning changes in educational animation: visuospatial working memory is more predictive than subjective task load.

Current theories suggest that visual and spatial processes in working memory are crucial for learning from animation. However, despite over three decades of research on learning from animation, little is known about how visuospatial working memory relates to learning. Instead, animation research often relies on subjective task load to explain and predict learning performance. To better understand how visuospatial working memory and learning from animation are related, a within-subjects study was conducted. Eighty six students learned from two animations of different complexity. The students' performance on visual learning tasks, visual and spatial working memory capacity, and perceived task load were assessed. Hierarchical regression analyses show that visuospatial working memory capacity is more critical for learning from a complex animation than for learning from a less complex animation. Moreover, visuospatial working memory capacity predicts learning from a complex animation significantly better than subjective task load. The effect size is large. The results provide a coherent picture of the relationships between learning task demands, learners' visuospatial working memory, perceived task load and learning performance. They not only allow for a more accurate prediction of learning from animation but can also help to tailor the design and use of animations to the learners' cognitive resources.