Expression patterns of melanin-related genes are linked to crypsis and conspicuousness in a pumpkin toadlet.

Colour signals play pivotal roles in different communication systems, and the evolution of these characters has been associated with behavioural ecology, integumentary production processes and perceptual mechanisms of the species involved. Here, we present the first insight into the molecular and histological basis of skin colour polymorphism within a miniaturized species of pumpkin toadlet, potentially representing the lowest size threshold for colour polytypism in tetrapods. Brachycephalus actaeus exhibits a coloration ranging from cryptic green to conspicuous orange skin, and our findings suggest that colour morphs differ in their capability to be detected by potential predators. We also found that the distribution and abundance of chromatophores are variable in the different colour morphs. The expression pattern of coloration related genes was predominantly associated with melanin synthesis (including dct, edn1, mlana, oca2, pmel, slc24a5, tyrp1 and wnt9a). Up-regulation of melanin genes in grey, green and brown skin was associated with higher melanophore abundance than in orange skin, where xanthophores predominate. Our findings provide a significant foundation for comparing and understanding the diverse pathways that contribute to the evolution of pigment production in the skin of amphibians.

Can canthaxanthin intensify the colour of the blood swordtail Xiphophorus helleri?

Colouring has a great influence on the commercialization of ornamental fish. The aim of this study was to evaluate different concentrations of canthaxanthin in the diet of the blood swordtail Xiphophorus helleri in an effort to obtain a more intense red colour. Six concentrations of canthaxanthin (0, 50, 100, 250, 400 and 600 mg kg-1 diet) were used. The experiment lasted 60 days. Fish were evaluated for increased red pigmentation through the use of photographs (performed by smartphone) and imaging applications considering the Hunter method and the CMYK and productive performance. No significant differences were observed for productive performance. The use of photographs by means of a smartphone and the use of imaging applications proved to be adequate to assess differences in colour in the species. Swordtail red pigmentation did not show significant increase regardless of canthaxanthin dosages. Varieties of ornamental fish bred for red coloration may have limits for increased colour due to the storage capacity of carotenoids by chromatophores.

Morphological colour adaptation during development in fish: involvement of growth hormone receptor 1.

Morphological background adaptation is both an endocrine and a nervous response, involving changes in the amount of chromatophores and pigment concentration. However, whether this adaptation takes place at early developmental stages is largely unknown. Somatolactin (Sl) is a pituitary hormone present in fish, which has been associated to skin pigmentation. Moreover, growth hormone receptor type 1 (Ghr1) has been suggested to be the Sl receptor and was associated with background adaptation in adults. In this context, the aim of this work was to evaluate the ontogeny of morphological adaptation to background and the participation of ghr1 in this process. We found in larval stages of the cichlid Cichlasoma dimerus that the number of head melanophores and pituitary cells immunoreactive to Sl was increased in individuals reared with black backgrounds compared with that in fish grown in white tanks. In larval stages of the medaka Oryzias latipes, a similar response was observed, which was altered by ghr1 biallelic mutations using CRISPR/Cas9. Interestingly, melanophore and leucophore numbers were highly associated. Furthermore, we found that somatic growth was reduced in ghr1 biallelic mutant O. latipes, establishing the dual function of this growth hormone receptor. Taken together, these results show that morphological background adaptation is present at early stages during development and that is dependent upon ghr1 during this period.

Incidence of the thermal transition in the range of 45-5°C in chromatophores present in the wings of Schistocerca americana.

The variation of the color intensity of the chromatophores present in the wings of Schistocerca americana was analyzed by exposing 31 specimens to thermal transitions within the range of 45 - 5 °C.  The adult specimens were collected using a mini-terrarium of dimensions 40x40x30 cm. As a substrate, a layer of soil, stones, and finally a layer of grass were used along with branches of bushes and leaves; hydroponic lettuce, cabbage and the grass were used as food for the specimens. Optical microscopy of the wings of the insects was used for live observation without coverslips or contrasting substances. At 45°C, degradation of color intensity was observed in the chromatophores present in the wings. At 5°C, chromatophores intensify their color to brownish-black. This temperature was the extreme minimum that S. americana could tolerate. We found negative correlation between the temperature and the degree of darkness (R2 = 0.8038). Our results are in accordance with a previously published study in which Phaulacridium vittatum was examined, as the decrease of temperature caused darkening color change in melanin-type chromatophores. The present investigation can be considered as the first initial study of its kind for S. americana, in terms of examining the changes in the color intensity of the chromatophores present in the wings caused by thermal transition under laboratory conditions.

Excessive luminosity fades the skin color of cardinal tetra / Luminosidade excessiva reduz a coloração da pele do cardinal tetra

In order to understand the morphological and physiological changes on the loss of coloration in the tegument of cardinal tetra under excessive luminosity, specimens of Paracheirodon axelrodi were conditioned to different light intensities (0, 250, 500, 1,200 and 2,700 lux) at different time intervals (0, 12, 24 and 72 hours). Types of chromatophores, dispersion of melanosomes and density of chromatophores were analyzed after the experiment. The dark stripe on the species consists of yellowish-brown (dorsally located) and darkish-brown (medially located) melanophores. In the iridescent blue stripe, darkish-brown melanophores were closely associated with iridophores. Erythrophores were found only in the red stripe. Loss of skin color was observed when cardinal tetra was exposed to intense light. The melanic and neon stripes became pale due to a reduction in melanophores densities. On the other hand, the color of the red stripe was intensified due to the proliferation of erythrophores. At low light levels (0 to 250 lux), the melanophores (with dispersed melanosomes) proliferate in the black and neon stripes resulting in a more vibrant skin color. We suggest that in nature, the paleness of the skin may represent a camouflage strategy during the hours of the day with greater luminosity in the black water of the Rio Negro. Fading the skin color can help this species to visually confuse potential predators.

Para compreender as mudanças morfológicas e fisiológicas da perda da coloração no tegumento do cardinal após exposição à luminosidade, exemplares de Paracheirodon axelrodi foram submetidos a diferentes intensidades luminosas (0, 250, 500, 1.200 e 2.700 lux), em diferentes intervalos de tempo (0, 12, 24 e 72 horas). Após a exposição, foram analisadas a dispersão dos melanossomos e a densidade de cromatóforos. A faixa de coloração escura do cardinal é constituída por melanóforos de coloração marrom-amarelado (dorsalmente localizados) e marrom-escuro (latero-medial). Na faixa azul iridescente, os melanóforos de cor marrom-escuro estão intimamente associados aos iridóforos. Eritróforos foram encontrados apenas na faixa vermelha. Observou-se que a perda da coloração ocorre devido à exposição pela luminosidade excessiva. As faixas melânica e neon tornam-se pálidas devido à redução na densidade dos melanóforos, enquanto a faixa vermelha intensifica-se como resultado da proliferação de eritróforos. Em baixa luminosidade (0 a 250 lux), os melanóforos (com melanossomos dispersos) proliferam-se nas faixas melânica e neon realçando ainda mais as cores vibrantes do cardinal. Nós sugerimos que na natureza a palidez pode representar um padrão de camuflagem durante as horas de intensa luminosidade nas águas pretas do rio Negro. A redução da coloração na pele pode ajudar o cardinal a confundir potenciais predadores visuais.

Excessive luminosity fades the skin color of cardinal tetra / Luminosidade excessiva reduz a coloração da pele do cardinal tetra

In order to understand the morphological and physiological changes on the loss of coloration in the tegument of cardinal tetra under excessive luminosity, specimens of Paracheirodon axelrodi were conditioned to different light intensities (0, 250, 500, 1,200 and 2,700 lux) at different time intervals (0, 12, 24 and 72 hours). Types of chromatophores, dispersion of melanosomes and density of chromatophores were analyzed after the experiment. The dark stripe on the species consists of yellowish-brown (dorsally located) and darkish-brown (medially located) melanophores. In the iridescent blue stripe, darkish-brown melanophores were closely associated with iridophores. Erythrophores were found only in the red stripe. Loss of skin color was observed when cardinal tetra was exposed to intense light. The melanic and neon stripes became pale due to a reduction in melanophores densities. On the other hand, the color of the red stripe was intensified due to the proliferation of erythrophores. At low light levels (0 to 250 lux), the melanophores (with dispersed melanosomes) proliferate in the black and neon stripes resulting in a more vibrant skin color. We suggest that in nature, the paleness of the skin may represent a camouflage strategy during the hours of the day with greater luminosity in the black water of the Rio Negro. Fading the skin color can help this species to visually confuse potential predators.(AU)

Para compreender as mudanças morfológicas e fisiológicas da perda da coloração no tegumento do cardinal após exposição à luminosidade, exemplares de Paracheirodon axelrodi foram submetidos a diferentes intensidades luminosas (0, 250, 500, 1.200 e 2.700 lux), em diferentes intervalos de tempo (0, 12, 24 e 72 horas). Após a exposição, foram analisadas a dispersão dos melanossomos e a densidade de cromatóforos. A faixa de coloração escura do cardinal é constituída por melanóforos de coloração marrom-amarelado (dorsalmente localizados) e marrom-escuro (latero-medial). Na faixa azul iridescente, os melanóforos de cor marrom-escuro estão intimamente associados aos iridóforos. Eritróforos foram encontrados apenas na faixa vermelha. Observou-se que a perda da coloração ocorre devido à exposição pela luminosidade excessiva. As faixas melânica e neon tornam-se pálidas devido à redução na densidade dos melanóforos, enquanto a faixa vermelha intensifica-se como resultado da proliferação de eritróforos. Em baixa luminosidade (0 a 250 lux), os melanóforos (com melanossomos dispersos) proliferam-se nas faixas melânica e neon realçando ainda mais as cores vibrantes do cardinal. Nós sugerimos que na natureza a palidez pode representar um padrão de camuflagem durante as horas de intensa luminosidade nas águas pretas do rio Negro. A redução da coloração na pele pode ajudar o cardinal a confundir potenciais predadores visuais.(AU)

Camouflage through colour change: mechanisms, adaptive value and ecological significance.

Animals from a wide range of taxonomic groups are capable of colour change, of which camouflage is one of the main functions. A considerable amount of past work on this subject has investigated species capable of extremely rapid colour change (in seconds). However, relatively slow colour change (over hours, days, weeks and months), as well as changes arising via developmental plasticity are probably more common than rapid changes, yet less studied. We discuss three key areas of colour change and camouflage. First, we review the mechanisms underpinning colour change and developmental plasticity for camouflage, including cellular processes, visual feedback, hormonal control and dietary factors. Second, we discuss the adaptive value of colour change for camouflage, including the use of different camouflage types. Third, we discuss the evolutionary-ecological implications of colour change for concealment, including what it can tell us about intraspecific colour diversity, morph-specific strategies, and matching to different environments and microhabitats. Throughout, we discuss key unresolved questions and present directions for future work, and highlight how colour change facilitates camouflage among habitats and arises when animals are faced with environmental changes occurring over a range of spatial and temporal scales.This article is part of the themed issue 'Animal coloration: production, perception, function and application'.