Urbanization, habitat extension and spatial pattern, threaten a Costa Rican endemic bird / Urbanización, cantidad de hábitat y distribución espacial, amenazan un ave endémica de Costa Rica

Introduction: Migration of people from rural environments to cities has accelerated urbanization and modified the landscape as well as the ecological processes and communities in these areas. The Costa Rican endemic Cabanis´s Ground-Sparrow (Melozone cabanisi) is a species of limited distribution restricted to the "Gran Area Metropolitana", which is the biggest urban settlement of the country. This area has experimented and still experiment an ongoing fragmentation and loss of habitat used by this species (coffee plantations, shrubs, and thickets). Objective: To determine the effects of urbanization on habitat abundance and spatial pattern for the occurrence of Melozone cabanisi. Methods: We modeled the area of potentially suitable habitat for this species in Costa Rica using occurrence and bioclimatic data. Then, we estimated the actual suitable habitat using land cover type layers. Finally, we analyzed the connectivity among the actual suitable habitat patches using single-patch and multi-patch approaches. Results: From the area of potentially suitable habitat estimated by the bioclimatic model, 74 % were urban areas that are unsuitable for Melozone cabanisi. The largest suitable patches within urban areas were coffee plantations; which also were crucial for maintaining connectivity between habitat patches along the species' range. Conclusions: To preserve and protect the Melozone cabanisi, these areas must be taken into consideration by decision-makers in the present and future management plans. We recommend avoiding change shrubs and thickets to urban cover to preserve the occurrence of Melozone cabanisi, and implement a program for the payment of environmental services to landholders, supported by the local governments, to protect those habitats in urban contexts.

Introducción: La migración desde ambientes rurales hacia las ciudades ha incrementado la urbanización. Esto ha modificado el paisaje, así como los procesos ecológicos y comunidades dentro de estas áreas. El Cuatro-ojos de Jupa-roja (Melozone cabanisi) es una especie distribuida principalmente al interior del asentamiento urbano más grande de Costa Rica. Hasta el presente esta área sigue experimentando fragmentación y pérdida del hábitat utilizado por esta especie (plantaciones de café, charrales y tacotales). Objetivo: Determinar los efectos de la urbanización sobre la cantidad de hábitat y su distribución espacial, basada en datos de presencia para M. cabanisi. Métodos: Modelamos el hábitat potencialmente adecuado para M. cabanisi utilizando datos bioclimáticos y de presencia. Luego estimamos el hábitat real utilizando el hábitat potencialmente adecuado y las capas de cobertura del suelo. Finalmente analizamos la conectividad entre los parches de hábitat real utilizando un enfoque multi y mono-parche. Resultados: Del área del hábitat potencialmente adecuado estimada por el modelo bioclimático, 74 % fueron áreas urbanas, lo que consideramos es un porcentaje inadecuado para M. cabanisi. Los parches más grandes de hábitat real dentro de las áreas urbanas fueron plantaciones de café, que a su vez fueron cruciales para mantener la conectividad entre los parches a lo largo del rango de distribución de la especie. Conclusiones: Para conservar y proteger a M. cabanisi, los tomadores de decisiones deben tener en cuenta los charrales, tacotales y cafetales dentro de la distribución de las especies en los planes de gestión presentes y futuros, evitando su cambio a coberturas urbanas.

Negative plant-soil feedbacks are stronger in agricultural habitats than in forest fragments in the tropical Andes.

There is now strong evidence suggesting that interactions between plants and their species-specific antagonistic microbes can maintain native plant community diversity. In contrast, the decay in diversity in plant communities invaded by nonnative plant species might be caused by weakening negative feedback strengths, perhaps because of the increased relative importance of plant mutualists such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). Although the vast majority of studies examining plant-soil feedbacks have been conducted in a single habitat type, there are fewer studies that have tested how the strength and direction of these feedbacks change across habitats with differing dominating plants. In a fragmented montane agricultural system in Colombia, we experimentally teased apart the relative importance of AMF and non-AMF microbes (a microbial filtrate) to the strength and direction of feedbacks in both native and nonnative plant species. We hypothesized that native tree species of forest fragments would exhibit stronger negative feedbacks with a microbial filtrate that likely contained pathogens than with AMF alone, whereas nonnative plant species, especially a highly invasive dominant grass, would exhibit overall weaker negative feedbacks or even positive feedbacks regardless of the microbial type. We reciprocally inoculated each of 10 plant species separately with either the AMF community or the microbial filtrate originating from their own conspecifics, or with the AMF or microbial filtrate originating from each of the other nine heterospecific plant species. Overall, we found that the strength of negative feedback mediated by the filtrate was much stronger than feedbacks mediated by AMF. Surprisingly, we found that the two nonnative species, Urochloa brizantha and Coffea arabica, experienced stronger negative feedbacks with microbial filtrate than did the native forest tree species, suggesting that species-specific antagonistic microbes accumulate when a single host species dominates, as is the case in agricultural habitats. However, negative feedback between forest trees and agricultural species suggests that soil community dynamics may contribute to the re-establishment of native species into abandoned agricultural lands. Furthermore, our finding of no negative feedbacks among trees in forest fragments may be due to a loss in diversity of those microbes that drive diversity-maintaining processes in intact tropical forests.

Variación mensual y anual de la riqueza y abundancia de aves en un mosaico agrícola periurbano tropical

Los mosaicos agrícolas han sido estudiados para comprender como contribuyen a mantener la riqueza de las especies según el tipo de matriz. Sin embargo, el estudio de la fenología de las especies dentro de estos ambientes ha sido dejado de lado. Por lo tanto mi objetivo con esta investigación fue analizar los cambios en la riqueza y abundancia de las especies de aves entre meses dentro de un mosaico periurbano agrícola tropical. Adicionalmente analicé si los cambios en la riqueza de las especies varían según su grado de dependencia por el bosque y el gremio alimenticio al que pertenecen. Realice muestreos mensuales del 2002 al 2010 dentro de una matriz de 30 ha dominada por potreros y cafetales, mezcladas con regeneración natural y zonas urbano-rurales. A lo largo de los muestreos anoté todos los individuos visto y escuchados de cada especie a lo largo de un trasecto de 3 km. Encontré que la riqueza de especies varió a lo largo de los meses, siendo mayor de enero a marzo (periodo seco del área de estudio) para todas las categorías de residencia (ej.: residentes, migratorias norteñas, sureñas, y altitudinales). Por tipo de gremio alimenticio la riqueza de especies aumento de enero a febrero para los frugívoros pequeños y en setiembre para los insectívoros; mientras que los otros gremios presentaron una riqueza similar de especies a lo largo del año. Por grado de dependencia de bosque solo las aves con dependencia moderada presentaron un aumento en su riqueza de enero a junio. El estudio reveló la ocurrencia de diferentes patrones de riqueza de aves a lo largo del año según el grado de dependencia del bosque, gremio alimenticio, y residencia en el país. Estas matrices poseen una riqueza alta de especies, pero en constante variación a lo largo del año, por lo que estos cambios en los patrones de riqueza deberían tomarse en cuenta para futuras políticas de conservación de dichos agroecosistemas.

Species richness inside agricultural landscape has been studied intensively and according to the type of landscape structure. However, the species phenology inside the mostly agricultural landscape is poorly understood. Therefore, my objective was to analyze species richness and individual abundance changes between months inside a semiurban agricultural landscape. Additionally, I analyzed if changes in species richness varied with the trophic guild and forest dependence of each species. From 2002 to 2010I I sampled 30 ha of coffee plantations and cattle land with natural successional regenerations and rural development. I recorded every individual listened and seen along a 3 km long transect once a month. The species richness changed between months and was higher between January and March (dry season in the study area) for all residence status (i.e., residents and north, south, and altitudinal migrants). Small frugivore species richness was higher between January and February, insectivore species richness was higher in September. The other food guilds had steady richness and abundance throughout the year. Species with a medium forest dependence showed higher species richness between January and June. Species richness phenology changed along the year depending on residence status, trophic guild, and forest dependence, a finding that should be taken into account in future conservation of this type of habitat.

Abundancia y riqueza de hongos micorrizógenos arbusculares en cafetales de Soconusco, Chiapas, México / Abundance and richness of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in coffee plantations from Soconusco, Chiapas, Mexico

Resumen El cultivo del café, en la economía mexicana y en la región del Soconusco en Chiapas, aporta importantes divisas; sin embargo es susceptible a plagas y enfermedades, por lo que se requiere reforzar su producción a través de un manejo más sustentable. Este estudio analizó la abundancia, riqueza y composición de hongos micorrizógenos arbusculares (HMA) nativos que pudieran emplearse en un futuro como biofertilizantes en el cultivo del café. En 21 muestras de suelo recolectadas en noviembre 2015 de siete sitios en la región del Soconusco, Chiapas, México, cultivados con café "robusta" (Coffea canephora), se cuantificó la abundancia de esporas, la riqueza y composición de morfoespecies de HMA y se exploró su relación con las propiedades del suelo. Se obtuvo un total de 20 morfoespecies y cinco nuevos registros de HMA para Chiapas, las morfoespecies más frecuentes pertenecen a los géneros Acaulospora y Glomus. Los sitios Toluca y Victoria tuvieron mayor riqueza de especies (17 spp. c/u) que San Agustín, 20 de noviembre y San Luis Nexapa (4 - 7 spp. c/u); mientras que Providencia y Platanar registraron una riqueza intermedia y los mayores valores de abundancia de esporas. Los sitios Victoria y Toluca presentaron un 97 % de disimilitud en la composición de especies de HMA con respecto a los demás sitios; la cual fue explicada por la baja concentración de PO4 -3en el suelo de Victoria y Toluca. La disponibilidad de P, ligada a la acidez del suelo, fueron los factores que podrían estar regulando las comunidades de HMA en el suelo de la rizosfera de los cafetos en la región del Soconusco. Se propone que podrían haber consorcios de HMA específicos para los niveles de P y acidez presentes en diferentes sitios con cafetos, o bien consorcios de especies de Acaulospora y Glomusacordes con las condiciones ambientales en las que se desarrolla el café, cuya compatibilidad y funcionalidad debe examinarse antes de emplearlos como biofertilizantes nativos en los cafetos de esta región tropical de México.

Abstract In the Mexican economy, and especially in the Soconusco region of Chiapas, coffee is economically important, and sustainable management most cover pests and diseases. In this study, we searched for native arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) that could be used as biofertilizers in coffee cultivation. We collected 21 soil samples from seven coffee plantations (Coffea canephora) in November 2015. We used wet sieving and decanting to quantify abundance, richness and composition of morphospecies, as well as their relationships with soil properties. A total of 20 morphospecies and five new records of AMF were obtained, and the most frequent genera were Acaulospora and Glomus. The Toluca and Victoria sites had more morphospecies richness (17 spp. each) than San Agustín, November 20 and San Luis Nexapa (4-7 spp. each). Providencia and Platanar were intermediate but had the highest spore abundance. The dissimilarity of Victoria and Toluca may reflect a low concentration of PO4 -3in the soil. P availability, linked to soil acidity, sems to be regulating these mycorrhizae communities at Soconusco. AMF consortia specific for soil P-levels and acidity, i.e. Acaulospora and Glomusconsortia, may occur and be common in the environmental conditions of Mexican coffee plantations, Strains should be tested for compatibility and functionality before using them as native biofertilizers. Rev. Biol. Trop. 66(1): 91-105. Epub 2018 March 01.

Host-specific effects of soil microbial filtrates prevail over those of arbuscular mycorrhizae in a fragmented landscape.

Plant-soil interactions have been shown to determine plant community composition in a wide range of environments. However, how plants distinctly interact with beneficial and detrimental organisms across mosaic landscapes containing fragmented habitats is still poorly understood. We experimentally tested feedback responses between plants and soil microbial communities from adjacent habitats across a disturbance gradient within a human-modified tropical montane landscape. In a greenhouse experiment, two components of soil microbial communities were amplified; arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and a filtrate excluding AMF spores from the soils of pastures (high disturbance), coffee plantations (intermediate disturbance), and forest fragments (low disturbance), using potted seedlings of 11 plant species common in these habitats (pasture grass, coffee, and nine native species). We then examined their effects on growth of these same 11 host species with reciprocal habitat inoculation. Most plant species received a similar benefit from AMF, but differed in their response to the filtrates from the three habitats. Soil filtrate from pastures had a net negative effect on plant growth, while filtrates from coffee plantations and forests had a net positive effect on plant growth. Pasture grass, coffee, and five pioneer tree species performed better with the filtrate from "away" (where these species rarely occur) compared to "home" (where these species typically occur) habitat soils, while four shade-tolerant tree species grew similarly with filtrates from different habitats. These results suggest that pastures accumulate species-specific soil enemies, while coffee plantations and forests accumulate beneficial soil microbes that benefit pioneer native plants and coffee, respectively. Thus, compared to AMF, soil filtrates exerted stronger habitat and host-specific effects on plants, being more important mediators of plant-soil feedbacks across contrasting habitats.

ALTERNATIVAS DE APLICAÇÃO DO "DRIS" À CULTURA DE CAFÉ CONILON (Coffea canephora Pierre)

The Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated System (DRIS) has been indicated as an alternative method for the evaluation of the nutritional status of plants, in substitution to the traditional criterium of interpretation of the critical levels of nutrients. In this study, it was tested the application of different DRIS methods (Jones, Elwali & Gascho, and Rathfon & Burger) in coffee crop data, grown in the Espírito Santo state, for three seasonal years. The calculation of the DRIS indices and the use of the F-test for the selection of the ratios between nutrients were tested during the diagnosis. The use of the F-test was shown to be a potential alternative, since it improves the capacity of discriminating nutritionally balanced plantations from the unbalanced. Even though there were differences among the DRIS indices, the diagnoses was consistent and adequate to differentiate crops according to their nutritional status. Additionally, the results suggest that the use of nitrogen fertilizers was adequate, since no nitrogen deficiency was detected. However, for P, Ca, B, and K, there were indications that their levels could be limiting the productivity of coffee.

O sistema integrado de diagnose e recomendação (DRIS) tem sido indicado como alternativa para a avaliação nutricional das plantas, em relação ao método tradicional de interpretação da concentração dos teores foliares pelo critério do nível crítico. Esse trabalho objetivou avaliar a aplicação de diferentes métodos do DRIS (de Jones, de Elwali & Gascho e de Rathfon & Burger) em dados oriundos de lavouras comerciais cafeeiras, do estado do Espírito Santo, nos anos agrícolas de 1986/87, 1987/88 e 1988/89. Adicionalmente, avaliou-se a validade da adoção do teste F na seleção das relações para o cálculo desses índices. A adoção do teste F mostrou-se promissora, pois melhorou a capacidade do DRIS em discriminar as lavouras nutricionalmente balanceadas daquelas desbalanceadas. Quanto as diferentes fórmulas de cálculo dos índices DRIS, embora tenha havido diferenças elas, os diagnósticos tenderam a ser consistentes entre si, com pouca dependência quanto ao tipo de fórmula utilizada. Os resultados sugeriram, ainda, que o manejo da adubação nitrogenada foi adequado, pois observou-se que a maioria das lavouras não apresentaram deficiência de N; enquanto que, para P, Ca, B e K houve indicações de que esses nutrientes poderiam estar ocorrendo com maior número de casos como limitantes da produtividade cafeeira no estado do Espírito Santo.

ALTERNATIVAS DE APLICAÇÃO DO "DRIS" À CULTURA DE CAFÉ CONILON (Coffea canephora Pierre)

The Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated System (DRIS) has been indicated as an alternative method for the evaluation of the nutritional status of plants, in substitution to the traditional criterium of interpretation of the critical levels of nutrients. In this study, it was tested the application of different DRIS methods (Jones, Elwali & Gascho, and Rathfon & Burger) in coffee crop data, grown in the Espírito Santo state, for three seasonal years. The calculation of the DRIS indices and the use of the F-test for the selection of the ratios between nutrients were tested during the diagnosis. The use of the F-test was shown to be a potential alternative, since it improves the capacity of discriminating nutritionally balanced plantations from the unbalanced. Even though there were differences among the DRIS indices, the diagnoses was consistent and adequate to differentiate crops according to their nutritional status. Additionally, the results suggest that the use of nitrogen fertilizers was adequate, since no nitrogen deficiency was detected. However, for P, Ca, B, and K, there were indications that their levels could be limiting the productivity of coffee.

O sistema integrado de diagnose e recomendação (DRIS) tem sido indicado como alternativa para a avaliação nutricional das plantas, em relação ao método tradicional de interpretação da concentração dos teores foliares pelo critério do nível crítico. Esse trabalho objetivou avaliar a aplicação de diferentes métodos do DRIS (de Jones, de Elwali & Gascho e de Rathfon & Burger) em dados oriundos de lavouras comerciais cafeeiras, do estado do Espírito Santo, nos anos agrícolas de 1986/87, 1987/88 e 1988/89. Adicionalmente, avaliou-se a validade da adoção do teste F na seleção das relações para o cálculo desses índices. A adoção do teste F mostrou-se promissora, pois melhorou a capacidade do DRIS em discriminar as lavouras nutricionalmente balanceadas daquelas desbalanceadas. Quanto as diferentes fórmulas de cálculo dos índices DRIS, embora tenha havido diferenças elas, os diagnósticos tenderam a ser consistentes entre si, com pouca dependência quanto ao tipo de fórmula utilizada. Os resultados sugeriram, ainda, que o manejo da adubação nitrogenada foi adequado, pois observou-se que a maioria das lavouras não apresentaram deficiência de N; enquanto que, para P, Ca, B e K houve indicações de que esses nutrientes poderiam estar ocorrendo com maior número de casos como limitantes da produtividade cafeeira no estado do Espírito Santo.